Solid Waste

Solid Waste includes all aggregate material that persists in the environment for a long time without degrading through biological processes, often adversely impacting the natural ecosystems and human life.

It is estimated that about 62 million tonnes of waste is generated annually in the country, out of which: 

• 5.6 million in plastic waste, 
• 1.5Mn tonne of e-waste, 
• 0.17 million is a biomedical waste. 
• In addition, hazardous waste generation is 7.90 million TPA. 

We will learn about these types of wastes in the subsequent chapters.

The per capita waste generation in Indian cities ranges from 200 grams to 600 grams per day (2011).  43 million TPA is collected, 11.9 million is treated and 31 million is dumped in landfill sites.

Types of Solid Wastes:

Based on its impact on humans and the natural environment, solid wastes can be categorised into the following: 

1. Municipal Waste: Household/construction & demolition waste/sanitation residue/street waste.
2. Hazardous Waste: Industrial waste that might contain a high degree of toxicity;
3. Bio-Medical Waste: Apart from toxic chemicals; it might become a source of infections through pathogens. Its source can be hospitals and Bio-medical Labs. It is governed by Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 1998.

Solid waste management: 

Solid waste management is simply the Scientific disposal of solid waste through segregation, collection, treatment and disposal in an environmentally sound manner that minimises the adverse impact on the environment. 

The local authorities are responsible for the development of infrastructure for:

1. Collection, storage and segregation, 
2. Transportation and processing and 
3. Disposal of MSW.

Collection and Segregation

Role of Ragpickers

• Waste-pickers – the foot soldiers:  For decades, waste pickers, working in dangerous and unsanitary conditions, have picked up what we throw away. They form the base of a pyramid that includes scrap dealers, aggregators and re-processors. 
  • They act as Segregators – They save segregation costs: By diverting waste towards recycling and reuse, waste pickers also subsidise local governments responsible for solid waste management. 
  • They reduce the amount of waste accumulating in cities, water bodies and dumpsites and increase recycling and reuse, creating environmental and public health benefits.
• Producers use this system: In India, producers have externalised these costs due to the presence of a robust informal sector composed of waste pickers.  

Transportation and Processing of Solid Waste

Disposal of Solid Waste

The most commonly recognized methods for the final disposal of solid wastes are:

• Dumping on land
• Dumping in water
• Ploughing into the soil
• Incineration

Solid waste can be dealt with in the following six ways:

• Open Dumps: Uncovered areas where solid waste is dumped. 

• They are dangerous, a source of pathogens, toxic and often even carcinogenic. 
• They often catch fire and create Air Pollution.
• Toxic residue seeps with water and pollutes groundwater.
• Mounts of open dumps are unstable and can create toxic mudslides on rainy days. For example, the Gazipur Landfill Mudslide incident in Delhi in 2017, where 2 people died.

• Landfills: They are pits dug into the open ground.  When the Garbage is dumped they are sealed with a layer of soil. They are generally located in urban areas.

• However, due to increased urbanization, these pits have often become open dumps in India.
• Also, since they are dug into the ground, they intensify seepage into the ground.

• Sanitary Landfills: These are methodically designed to prevent leaching; They are lined with impermeable plastics or geomembranes to avoid seepage into groundwater.

• Incineration Plants: Waste can be burnt into large furnaces at high temperatures.

• This pollutes the air and leaves solid toxic ash residue, even when recyclable material is segregated. Energy recovery is possible.

• Pyrolysis/Gasification: It is a process of Heating in the absence of oxygen or the material burnt under a controlled atmosphere of oxygen.

• This gives some amount of reusable fuel: Charcoal, tar, Methyl alcohol, acetic acid, acetone, fuel gas & Syngas.

• Recycling & Composting: Microorganisms (mainly Fungi and Bacteria) decompose degradable organic waste into humus-like substances in the presence of Oxygen.

• The finished product looks like soil and is rich in nutrients. 
• It also increases the soil’s ability to hold water.
• However, composting municipal waste is almost impossible if the non-biodegradable waste is not segregated at the source; It would pollute the compost product. 

Problems in Solid Waste Management in India

As per the information available for 2013-14, compiled by CPCB, municipal authorities have so far only set up 553 compost & vermicompost plants, 56 bio-methanation plants, 22 Refused Derived Fuel (RDF)plants and 13 Waste to Energy (W to E) plants in the country.

• Weak Collection and Segregation infrastructure: Only about 75- 80% of the MSW gets collected and out of this only 22-28 % is processed and treated and the remaining is disposed of indiscriminately at dump yards. 

• Requirement of land for dumping: It is projected that by the year 2031, the MSW generation shall increase to 165 million tonnes and to 436 million tons by 2050.  If cities continue to dump the waste at the present rate without treatment, they will need 1240 hectares of land per year by 2031, i.e. 66,000 hectares of land in total. 

• Waste as a source of Energy: As per the Report of the Task Force of the erstwhile Planning Commission, the untapped waste has the potential to generate 439 MW of power from 32,890 TPD of combustible wastes including Refused Derived Fuel (RDF), 1.3 million cubic metres of biogas per day, or 72 MW of electricity from biogas and 5.4 million metric tonnes of compost annually to support agriculture.

Bio-remediation: 

Bioremediation is the treatment of pollutants or waste (as in an oil spill, contaminated groundwater, or an industrial process) by the use of microorganisms (such as bacteria) that break down undesirable substances.

• In-Situ Bioremediation: These microorganisms might be indigenous to the contaminated area; For Example, East Kolkata Wetlands.

• Bio-venting: Providing air through wells.
• Bio-sparging: injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater.
• Bio-augmentation: Microorganisms are imported to contaminated sites to enhance degradation. 

• Ex-Situ Bioremediation: involves removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.
  • Land-farming: Contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a prepared to be and periodically tilled until pollutants are degraded.
  • Composting: decomposition of organic waste in pits.
  • Bio-piles: It is a hybrid of land-farming and composting.
  • Bioreactors: Processing of contaminated soil material or water through an engineered containment system.

• Biomining is the process of using microorganisms (microbes) to extract metals of economic interest from rock ores or mine waste. It may also be used to clean up sites that have been polluted. 
  • It involves the use of separator machines or large sieves to separate waste material of different sizes, thereby obtaining soil, plastic, wood and metal components in isolation for appropriate processing.
• Alternative methods for Redemption of landfill
  • Thermal Treatment: It refers to the processes that use heat to treat waste materials. Some of the most commonly used thermal waste treatment techniques are Incineration, Gasification and Pyrolysis.
  • Sub-surface cut-off walls: The cut-off walls for solid waste dump sites are usually designed to separate the waste dump from any underlying water stream/ source.

Waste to Energy (WtE): 

When Waste is either Directly burnt or converted into a useful fuel. Energy can be extracted from bio-degradable waste through the following ways: – 

1. Incineration: burning MSW with high volumes of air; The heat thus generated can be used to produce electricity. However, this may release huge amounts of oxides of Nitrogen and Sulphur into the air.
2. Gasification: Heating at high temperatures (>700oC), with a controlled amount of oxygen. This produces syngas (CO + H2), which can be turned into higher-value commercial products. For Example, the Paper & Pulp industry produces “black Liquor” as waste, which can be burnt to produce electricity. However, can be gasified to produce more eco-friendly fuel.
3. Pyrolysis: Heating in the absence of oxygen to generate oils and/or syngas (as well as solid waste outputs) requires more homogenous waste streams.
4. Bio-methanation: fermentation under anaerobic conditions to biogas in the presence of certain bacteria, organic acid oxidizing bacteria, and methanogenic archaea.
5. Torrefaction: a Swedish technology that can convert rice stubble into ‘bio-coal’. It involves heating up straw, grass, saw-mill residue and wood biomass to 250°C – 350°C. This changes the elements of the biomass into ‘coal-like’ pellets. These pellets can be used for combustion along with coal for industrial applications like steel and cement production.

Advantages of Waste to Energy (WtE) Plants: 

• Reduces Greenhouse Gas Emissions.
• Recovery of Resources: Apart from Energy, metals left in MSW can be extracted from the ash.
• Reduce Import Dependency on Energy.
• Enhance Electricity supply.
• Waste Management: Total Waste is reduced by 90%.
• Transportation of waste to long distances can be greatly reduced with a waste-to-energy facility in a community, resulting in less air pollution.

We might see it as a disadvantage that the greenhouse gases and pollutants through these processes might harm the environment. However, we must remember, that if we allow solid wastes to degrade naturally, it too will produce the same greenhouse gases slowly. Covering our energy requirement with this waste can be a benefit that we can attain for free through such processes.

Government Initiatives:

• Program on Energy from Urban, Industrial and Agricultural Waste/Residue for creating conducive conditions and environment with fiscal and financial regimes to develop, demonstrate, and disseminate utilization of wastes and residues for recovery of energy.
• Central financial assistance (CFA) in the form of capital subsidy and grants-in-aid will be provided for biogas production from industrial waste, sewage treatment plants, etc.
• Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), 100% scientific processing and disposal of municipal solid waste is envisaged by 2019. WTE plants are key to Mission since they lead to the most scientific disposal of waste.
• The Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) has started the process of “biomining and bioremediation” of the three landfills in Delhi namely Bhalswa, Okhla and Ghazipur.

Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: 

Released by MoEFCC, these Rules make the following provisions:

Applicability of SWM Rules

These rules are now applicable beyond Municipal areas and extend to urban agglomerations, census towns, notified industrial townships, areas under the control of Indian Railways, airports, airbases, Port and harbour, defence establishments, SEZs, State and Central government organizations, places of pilgrims, religious & historical importance.

Waste Segregation at source:

The Rules aim to channel the waste to wealth by recovery, reuse and recycling.

1. Responsibilities of Generators have been introduced to segregate waste into three streams, 

1. Wet (Biodegradable), 
2. Dry (Plastic, Paper, metal, wood, etc.) and 
3. domestic hazardous wastes (We are unable to segregate: diapers, napkins, empty containers of cleaning agents, mosquito repellents, etc.) & hand over segregated wastes to authorized rag-pickers/waste collectors/local bodies.

1. The generator will have to pay a ‘User Fee’ to the waste collector and for ‘Spot Fine’ for Littering and Non-segregation.
2. Bulk and institutional generators, market associations, event organizers hotels and restaurants have been made directly responsible for segregation and sorting the waste and manage in partnership with local bodies.

1. All hotels and restaurants should segregate biodegradable waste and set up a system of collection or follow the system of collection set up by local bodies to ensure that such food waste is utilized for composting/bio-methanation. 
2. All Resident Welfare and market Associations, Gated communities and institutions with an area >5,000 sq. m should segregate waste at source- into valuable dry waste like plastic, tin, glass, paper, etc. and handover recyclable material to either the authorized waste pickers/recyclers or the urban local body. 
3. An event, or gathering organiser of more than 100 persons at any licensed/ unlicensed place, should ensure segregation of waste at source and handing over of segregated waste to a waste collector or agency, as specified by local authority.

Collection of Waste:

1. Integration of waste pickers/ rag-pickers and waste dealers/ Kabadiwalas in the formal system should be done by State Governments, and SHG, or any other group to be formed.
2. No person should throw, burn, or bury the solid waste generated by him, on streets, open public spaces outside his premises, or in the drain, or water bodies.
3. Sanitary waste like diapers and sanitary pads should be wrapped securely in pouches provided by manufacturers or brand owners of these products or in a suitable wrapping material and shall be placed in the bin meant for dry waste/non-biodegradable waste.
4. Every street vendor should keep suitable containers for storage of waste generated during their activities such as food waste, disposable plates, cups, cans, wrappers, coconut shells, leftover food, vegetables, fruits etc. and deposit such waste at a waste storage depot or container or vehicle as notified by the local authority.

Disposal

The SWM rules aim to implement Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) and energy recovery by producing refuse-derived fuel (RDF) for Non-recyclable waste.

Extended Producer responsibility (EPR): 

What is Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)?

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is a policy framework that holds producers accountable for the entire lifecycle of their products, including post-consumer waste management. It mandates the collection, recycling, and disposal of waste, particularly plastic, e-waste, and hazardous materials, ensuring sustainable production and reduced environmental impact through regulatory compliance. For example,  Dell and HP run take-back programs, collecting old devices for safe recycling. Similarly, Coca-Cola adopts plastic bottle recycling to reduce waste, ensuring sustainable production and regulatory compliance. Do you remember: Earlier, the coca cola used to give ₹1 back to the consumers who used to bring back the used cold drink glass bottles to the retail shop owner? This collection of waste by the producer is referred to as the Extended Producer responsibility (EPR)

 

The SWM Rules 2016 put the EPR Liability on Manufacturers, Brand Owners or marketing companies:

1. They should educate the masses about the wrapping and disposal of their products. For example, Manufacturers of Sanitary napkins and diapers need to educate the masses about how to dispose of them or provide a pouch or wrapper for the disposal along with the packet of their sanitary products They should also explore the possibility of using all recyclable materials in their products.
2. All manufacturers of disposable products (tin, glass or plastic) or brand owners who introduce such products in the market shall provide necessary financial assistance to local authorities for the establishment of the waste management system.
3. Those who market their products in non-biodegradable packing material should place a system to collect back the packaging waste generated due to their production.

Refuse-derived fuel (RDF)

Non-recyclable waste having a calorific value of 1500 K/cal/kg or more shall not be disposed of on landfills and shall only be utilized for generating energy either or through refuse-derived fuel (RDF) or be given away as feed stock for preparing refuse-derived fuel (RDF).

1. High calorific wastes shall be used for co-processing in cement or thermal power plants.
2. All industrial units using fuel and located within 100 km of a solid waste-based RDF plant shall make arrangements within six months from the date of notification of these rules to replace at least 5 % of their fuel requirement by RDF so produced.

Further, the Developers of SEZs, industrial estates, and industrial parks are to earmark at least 5% of the total area of the plot or a minimum of 5 plots/ sheds for recovery and recycling facilities.

Other Wastes

• Construction and demolition waste should be stored, and separately disposed of, as per the Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016
• Bio-degradable waste should be processed, treated and disposed of through composting or bio–methanation within the premises as far as possible. The residual waste shall be given to the waste collectors or agency as directed by the local authority.
  • New townships and Group Housing Societies have been made responsible for developing in-house waste handling, and processing arrangements for bio-degradable waste.
  • Horticulture waste and garden waste generated from his premises should be disposed of as per the directions of the local authority.

Special provision for management of solid waste in hilly areas: – 

• Construction of landfill on the hill shall be avoided. 
• A transfer station at a suitable enclosed location shall be set up to collect residual waste from the processing facility and inert waste.  
• Suitable land shall be identified in the plain areas, down the hill, within 25km for setting up sanitary landfill. 
• The residual waste from the transfer station shall be disposed off at this sanitary landfill. In case of non-availability of such land, efforts shall be made to set up a regional sanitary landfill for the inert and residual waste.

Policy on Promotion of City Compost. 

The Policy on Promotion of City Compost was introduced by the Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers to encourage the conversion of urban waste into compost. A fixed amount of subsidy decided on an annual basis is provided to fertilizer companies.

It proposes a City Compost Scheme, with the following provisions:

• Market Development Assistance of ₹1500/tonne of compost to scale up its production & consumption. It aims to enhance waste processing and promote organic farming.  
• Nutrient-Based Subsidy Scheme (NBS): The subsidy amount would depend on its nutrient content (other than Urea).
  • Manufacturers/importers/marketers are allowed to fix the MRP of Phosphatic & Potassic (P & K) fertilizers at a reasonable level.
  • MRP will be decided considering the international and domestic prices of P&K fertilizers, exchange rate, and inventory level in the country.
• Fertilizer companies and marketing entities will also co-market City Compost with chemical fertilizers through their dealers’ network. 
  • The companies will also adopt villages to promote the use of compost.
  • Government Departments & PSUs will also use City Compost for their horticulture and related uses. 
• BIS Standard/ Eco-Mark: Ensure environment-friendly quality product reaches the farmers. Eco-Mark standard for City Compost would ensure that environment-friendly quality product reaches the farmers. 
• Marketing and promotion: It is proposed to be done through the existing fertilizer companies initially. 
  • In due course, compost manufacturers and other marketing entities recognized by the concerned State Govt. may also be included for the purpose with the approval of the Department of Fertilisers.
  • The market development assistance shall be routed through the entity which is marketing it. 
  • A joint mechanism will be set up by the Department of Fertilizers, MoUD & Dept. of Agriculture to monitor and facilitate the availability of adequate quantity of City Compost at terms mutually agreeable between compost manufacturers and Fertilizer Marketing companies. They will also be authorised to resolve any coordination-related issue that may arise. 
• Education:
  • The concerned Ministry/Department will carry out IEC (Information, education and communication) campaigns to educate farmers on the benefits of city compost and will take steps to increase the setting up of compost plants across all States. 
  • The Agricultural Extension Machineries including KVKs (Krishi Vigyan Kendras) of ICAR (Ind. Council of Agricultural Research) will also make special efforts in this regard. Agriculture Universities and KVKs will also take up field demonstration activities using City compost for which D/o Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare will assign targets. 

Advantages of City Compost Production

• It would lower the MRP of city compost for farmers. 
• It can reduce the volume of waste in landfills/dumpsites. 
• This also prevents the production of harmful greenhouse gases (especially methane) and toxic materials that pollute groundwater apart from polluting the environment. 
• It would also generate employment in urban areas for compost generation.
• It will ensure that an adequate quantity of P&K is available to the farmers at a statutory controlled price so that end-use is balanced. 
• It will help improve agricultural productivity, promote the growth of the indigenous fertilizer industry and reduce the burden of subsidies.

What is Solid Waste?

Solid waste refers to all the discarded materials that persist in the environment for a long time without degrading biologically, adversely impacting natural ecosystems and human life.

How much waste is generated annually in India?

SAbout 62 million tonnes of waste is generated annually in India, comprising:
5.6 million tonnes of plastic waste
1.5 million tonnes of e-waste
0.17 million tonnes of biomedical waste
7.9 million tonnes of hazardous waste

What is the per capita waste generation in Indian cities?

Per capita waste generation in Indian cities ranges from 200 grams to 600 grams per day (as per 2011 data).

What are the main types of Solid Waste in India?

The major types of solid waste are:
Municipal Waste
Hazardous Waste
Bio-Medical Waste
Electronic Waste (E-Waste)
Plastic Waste
Construction & Demolition Waste

What is Solid Waste Management (SWM)?

SWM is the scientific process of segregating, collecting, treating, and disposing of solid waste in an environmentally sound manner to minimize its adverse impact.