Rise of Nationalism in Europe – Italy and Germany

Nationalism is a political and social ideology that advocates for the self-determination of people who share a common identity based on language, culture, history, and ethnicity. It promotes the idea that a nation should govern itself, free from external control, often leading to the formation of independent nation-states. While nationalism can unite people, it has also led to conflicts, wars, and rivalries among nations.

During the 19th century, nationalism played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of Europe, particularly in countries like Italy and Germany, which were fragmented into multiple states. The demand for unification and self-governance was driven by nationalist leaders, secret societies, and widespread public support.

Role of Nationalism Europe

Nationalism emerged as a powerful force in Europe, particularly in the aftermath of the French Revolution (1789) and the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815). Before this period, Europe was largely ruled by monarchies and multi-ethnic empires such as the Austrian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. However, nationalist movements challenged the old order by demanding political unity and self-rule.

• Rise of Nation-States: Nationalism led to the consolidation of smaller states into larger, unified nations. The most significant examples were the unifications of Italy (1861) and Germany (1871).
• End of Feudal and Dynastic Rule: Nationalists opposed the dominance of monarchical and imperial rulers, calling for governments based on popular sovereignty.
• Promotion of National Identity: Nationalists sought to preserve and promote their own culture, language, and traditions, leading to movements aimed at resisting foreign influence.
• Conflicts and Revolutions: Nationalist uprisings occurred in France (1830, 1848), Poland (1830), Hungary (1848), and the Balkans (throughout the 19th century), as people demanded independence or democratic reforms.

Impact of the French Revolution

The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a turning point in European history, as it introduced ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity, inspiring nationalist movements across the continent. The revolution challenged the traditional rule of monarchs and aristocrats, advocating for the sovereignty of the people.

1. Abolition of Absolute Monarchy: The revolution overthrew the French monarchy, establishing a republic based on democratic principles.
2. Spread of Revolutionary Ideals: Through war and diplomacy, revolutionary France spread nationalism and anti-monarchist sentiments across Europe.
3. Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon used nationalist sentiment to strengthen France and expand his empire across Europe, challenging the dominance of traditional monarchies.
4. Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire (1806): Napoleon’s victories led to the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, which had controlled much of Central Europe. This weakened Austrian influence and paved the way for German unification.
5. Inspiration for Future Nationalist Movements: Napoleon’s reforms in Italy, Germany, and Poland encouraged local populations to demand self-rule. However, his downfall in 1815 led to the restoration of monarchies, temporarily suppressing nationalist movements.

The Congress of Vienna (1815) attempted to restore the pre-revolutionary order by reinstating monarchs and suppressing nationalist and liberal movements. However, the ideas of nationalism could not be completely erased, and they continued to grow throughout the 19th century.

Factors Leading to Nationalism

The rise of nationalism in Europe was driven by political, social, and economic changes that fostered a sense of shared identity and collective purpose. The French Revolution, Napoleonic Wars, and the spread of liberal and democratic ideals played a key role in uniting people under common national identities.

1. Influence of the Enlightenment and Romanticism

The Enlightenment (17th–18th century) emphasized reason, individual rights, and self-governance, inspiring many nationalist thinkers. Philosophers like John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu promoted ideas of popular sovereignty and democracy, which encouraged nationalist aspirations.

• Social Contract Theory: Rousseau’s idea that governments must reflect the “general will” of the people influenced nationalist demands for self-rule.
• Challenge to Monarchies: Enlightenment thinkers criticized absolute monarchy, advocating for constitutional governments based on national identity.
• Education and Literacy: The spread of printing and newspapers helped create a sense of shared identity among people speaking the same language.

At the same time, Romanticism (late 18th–early 19th century) played a crucial role in fuelling nationalist sentiment by glorifying folk traditions, history, and national heroes. Romantic poets and writers revived interest in local cultures, inspiring movements that sought to unify fragmented states into one national identity.

• Johann Gottfried Herder (Germany): Emphasized the importance of Volksgeist (national spirit) and argued that language and culture define a nation.
• Giuseppe Mazzini (Italy): A key nationalist leader, he promoted “Young Italy”, calling for the unification of Italy through revolutionary means.
• Victor Hugo and Lord Byron: These writers romanticized national struggles, inspiring uprisings in Greece, Italy, and Poland.

Thus, both rational Enlightenment ideas and emotional Romantic ideals contributed to the rise of nationalism across Europe.

2. Role of the Congress of Vienna (1815) in Suppressing Nationalism

After Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, European monarchs and aristocrats sought to restore the old order through the Congress of Vienna, led by Prince Metternich of Austria. The goal was to prevent future revolutions and maintain stability by restoring traditional rulers and suppressing nationalist movements.

• Restoration of Monarchies: Many European states that had briefly experimented with republics or constitutional governments returned to absolute rule.
• Suppression of Nationalism and Liberalism: Any nationalist uprising was seen as a threat to the balance of power and was violently crushed.
• Austrian and Russian Influence: Austria and Russia played a major role in suppressing German and Italian unification movements.
• Formation of the German Confederation: Instead of unifying Germany, the Congress created a loose alliance of 39 German states, led by Austria, to prevent Prussian expansion.
• Failure to Recognize National Aspirations: Many ethnic groups (e.g., Poles, Hungarians, Italians) were forced to remain under foreign rule, fuelling future revolts.

Although the Congress of Vienna temporarily suppressed nationalism, it could not completely erase nationalist sentiment. By the 1830s and 1840s, revolutions erupted across Europe, signalling the failure of conservative policies.

3. Economic Changes and Industrialization

The Industrial Revolution (1750–1850) also contributed to the rise of nationalism by transforming European economies and societies.

• Economic Growth and Urbanization: Industrialization created urban centers and middle-class workers, leading to demands for political participation and national unity.
• Zollverein (German Customs Union): The Prussian-led economic union (1834) helped integrate German states economically, laying the groundwork for political unification.
• Increased Communication and Transport: Railroads and newspapers connected distant regions, strengthening national identity and cultural unity.

4. Role of Secret Societies

To counteract the suppression of nationalism, secret societies emerged to promote revolutionary ideas and unification movements.

• Carbonari (Italy): A secret revolutionary group advocating for Italian unification and independence from Austria. Organized uprisings in Naples (1820), Piedmont (1831), and Rome (1848), though most were crushed.
• Young Italy (1831): Founded by Giuseppe Mazzini, calling for a unified, republican Italy. Advocated for mass mobilization and popular uprisings against foreign rulers.
• Burschenschaften (Germany): Student nationalist groups in Germany promoting unity and constitutional government, but Suppressed by the Carlsbad Decrees (1819) under Austrian pressure.

Despite their initial failures, these groups kept nationalist ideas alive, ultimately leading to the successful unifications of Italy (1861) and Germany (1871).

Unification of Italy

The Unification of Italy (1815–1871) was a political and military process that consolidated various Italian states into a single kingdom. Led by key figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi, Count Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel II, it overcame foreign domination and internal divisions. The movement was driven by nationalist sentiments and the desire for political unity and independence.

1. Italy Before Unification

Before unification, Italy was divided into several independent states controlled by foreign powers like Austria and Spain. The Italian Peninsula lacked political unity, with regional differences and foreign influence hindering nationalist movements.

Political Fragmentation: Divided into Multiple States

Before unification, Italy was not a single nation but a collection of separate states ruled by different powers. The Italian Peninsula was politically fragmented into several independent and foreign-controlled territories:

1. Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia – The most powerful and industrialized Italian state, ruled by the House of Savoy. It played a leading role in unification.
2. Lombardy and Venetia – Controlled by the Austrian Empire, which opposed Italian nationalism and sought to maintain its dominance in northern Italy.
3. Papal States – Ruled by the Pope with support from Catholic European powers, particularly France. The Papal States resisted unification, fearing the loss of political and religious authority.
4. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily) – Governed by the Spanish Bourbon dynasty. It was economically backward and ruled with an autocratic monarchy.
5. Duchies of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany – Smaller states under Austrian influence, with conservative rulers loyal to Austria.

Each region had different political structures, economies, and levels of development, making unification difficult.

Influence of Austria in Northern Italy

After the Congress of Vienna (1815), Austria dominated Lombardy and Venetia and maintained influence over smaller Italian states. The Austrian Empire suppressed nationalist uprisings, using military force to crush revolts in 1820, 1831, and 1848.

• Austria viewed Italian unification as a threat to its empire, as it ruled over many different ethnic groups in Central and Eastern Europe.

Role of Giuseppe Mazzini and the Young Italy Movement

Giuseppe Mazzini was one of the most influential early nationalist leaders, advocating for a unified, republican Italy.

• In 1831, he founded the Young Italy Movement, a secret organization dedicated to ending foreign rule and establishing a democratic Italy.
• Mazzini promoted national identity, self-determination, and revolution as the path to unification.
• His movement inspired many nationalist uprisings, though most were unsuccessful due to Austrian suppression.
• Despite his failures, Mazzini’s ideas influenced later leaders like Count Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi, who adopted more pragmatic strategies for unification.

2. Key Events in Italian Unification

The Risorgimento (“Resurgence”) refers to the period of Italian unification (1815–1871), marked by nationalist movements, revolutions, and military conflicts.

a). Revolutions of 1848 and Their Failure

The Revolutions of 1848 were widespread nationalist uprisings across Europe, including Italy.

• Causes: Demand for constitutional governments and end to foreign rule (Austria’s dominance in northern Italy).It was inspired by liberal ideas and economic hardships.
• Key Events: Revolts in Milan and Venice against Austria. Pope Pius IX fled from Rome, leading to the brief establishment of the Roman Republic (1849) under Mazzini and Garibaldi.
  • Piedmont-Sardinia under King Charles Albert declared war on Austria but was defeated at the Battle of Novara (1849).
• Outcome: The revolutions failed due to lack of coordination, foreign intervention (Austria and France), and internal divisions. Austria reasserted control over northern Italy, and the Pope regained the Papal States with French support.
  • The failure of these revolts convinced Italian nationalists that unification required diplomacy and military strategy, rather than just revolutionary uprisings.

b). Role of Count Cavour and Diplomacy

After the failed revolutions, Piedmont-Sardinia emerged as the leading force in unification under King Victor Emmanuel II and his Prime Minister Count Camillo di Cavour.

• Cavour was a moderate nationalist and a realist (Realpolitik) who believed in gradual unification through diplomacy and alliances.
• Policies and Actions:
  • Modernized Piedmont-Sardinia’s economy (railways, industry, agriculture) to strengthen its position.
  • Promoted alliances with powerful European nations to counter Austrian influence.
  • Participated in the Crimean War (1853–1856) to gain international support.

c). War with Austria (1859) and Annexation of Lombardy

• Cavour allied with France (Napoleon III) in 1859, promising France Nice and Savoy in exchange for military support against Austria.
• Austro-Sardinian War (1859):  France and Piedmont-Sardinia defeated Austria at the Battle of Magenta and Battle of Solferino. Austria ceded Lombardy to Piedmont-Sardinia, but retained Venetia. The war inspired nationalist uprisings in other Italian states, leading to the annexation of Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and Romagna.

d). Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi and the Red Shirts

• Giuseppe Garibaldi, a revolutionary leader and military commander, led the Expedition of the Thousand (1860) to liberate southern Italy. With only 1,000 volunteers (“Red Shirts”), he launched an invasion of Sicily and Naples.
• Defeated the Bourbon monarchy in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, uniting southern Italy. Garibaldi wanted to establish a republic, but he ultimately handed control to King Victor Emmanuel II, ensuring monarchical unification.

e). Unification of Italy (1861)

• On March 17, 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was officially proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel II as the first king. However, Rome and Venetia were still not part of Italy, delaying full unification.

f). Final Unification

• Venetia (1866): During the Austro-Prussian War (1866), Italy allied with Prussia. After Austria’s defeat, Italy gained Venetia.
• Rome (1870): During the Franco-Prussian War (1870), France withdrew its troops from Rome. Italy then seized the city, making it the capital of unified Italy.

By 1871, Italy achieved full unification under King Victor Emmanuel II, ending centuries of political division. This marked the consolidation of various independent states into a single Italian nation.

3. Challenges After Unification

Despite political unification, Italy faced significant internal challenges, including regional economic disparities, political instability, and social divisions. The North was industrialized, while the South remained agrarian and underdeveloped.

1. Regional Disparities Between North and South: Italy faced significant regional disparities after unification. The north was industrialized, wealthier, and modernized, while the south remained poor, agrarian, and underdeveloped. The southern regions felt neglected by the central government, leading to resentment and lack of national unity.
2. Weak Political Structure and Internal Divisions: Italy struggled to build a strong political identity as people identified more with their regional states than as “Italians.” The government was initially a constitutional monarchy, but political instability and a weak parliamentary system made governance difficult, leading to internal divisions and lack of cohesion.
3. Role of the Catholic Church in Opposing the New State: Pope Pius IX refused to recognize the Italian state and declared himself a “prisoner in the Vatican.” The Catholic Church opposed the Italian government, creating ongoing tensions between church and state. The dispute was finally resolved in 1929 through the Lateran Treaty, which granted Vatican City independence and improved church-state relations.

The unification of Italy was a complex and gradual process, driven by nationalist leaders like Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi. Despite achieving political unity, Italy faced economic, social, and political challenges that persisted for decades. The legacy of the Risorgimento continues to shape Italian national identity today.

Unification of Germany

The Unification of Germany (1864–1871) was a major political and military achievement that united various German states into a single empire under Prussian leadership. Otto von Bismarck’s strategic use of diplomacy and wars against Denmark, Austria, and France played a key role. The German Empire was officially proclaimed in 1871 at the Palace of Versailles.

1. Germany Before Unification

Before unification, Germany was divided into over 300 independent states within the Holy Roman Empire. The Congress of Vienna (1815) reduced them to 39 states under the German Confederation, dominated by Austria and Prussia.

a). Political Divisions

Before unification, Germany was a collection of 39 independent states, known as the German Confederation, which was established by the Congress of Vienna (1815) after the defeat of Napoleon.

• The Austrian Empire led the Confederation and sought to maintain control over German affairs, preventing unification. Prussia, the most powerful German state after Austria, sought to unify Germany under its leadership.
• Smaller German states, such as Bavaria, Saxony, and Hanover, were caught between Austrian and Prussian influence.

b). Role of Prussia vs. Austria

• Austria wanted to preserve the status quo, maintaining its dominance over the German states while preventing unification. Prussia, led by the Hohenzollern dynasty, aimed to unite Germany under its leadership and reduce Austrian influence.
• Prussia had a strong military and industrial economy, making it a leading contender for German unification.

c). Influence of Zollverein (Customs Union)

• In 1834, Prussia created the Zollverein, a customs union that included most German states except Austria. It promoted economic cooperation and free trade among German states, strengthening Prussia’s economic leadership.
• The Zollverein helped foster a sense of German unity, as economic ties between German states grew stronger.

By the mid-19th century, Prussia had become the dominant force in German affairs, setting the stage for unification.

d). Role of Otto von Bismarck and Realpolitik

Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor (1862–1890), played the key role in German unification. He used a pragmatic and strategic approach known as Realpolitik, which focused on achieving goals through diplomacy, alliances, and military force rather than idealism.

Bismarck’s Diplomatic Strategy for Unification

• Bismarck avoided unnecessary wars and used diplomacy to isolate Austria and France, ensuring Prussia faced weak opposition.
• He forged alliances with key European powers, using them to achieve Prussia’s objectives. He convinced King Wilhelm I of Prussia to expand the military, preparing for future conflicts.

“Blood and Iron” Speech and the Use of Military Force

• In 1862, Bismarck gave his famous “Blood and Iron” speech, emphasizing that unification would be achieved through war and military strength, not speeches and diplomacy.
• He believed in military power (iron) and war (blood) to unify Germany under Prussia’s rule. This approach led to a series of wars that ultimately unified Germany.

2. Key Wars Leading to German Unification

The unification of Germany (1864–1871) was achieved through three key wars orchestrated by Otto von Bismarck, using military strength and diplomatic strategy. These wars were the Danish War (1864), Austro-Prussian War (1866), and Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), which established Prussia as the dominant German power.

a). Danish War (1864) – Prussia and Austria vs. Denmark

• Cause: Denmark attempted to annex Schleswig and Holstein, two duchies with German populations.
• Events:  Prussia and Austria jointly declared war on Denmark and quickly defeated it. Schleswig was given to Prussia, and Holstein was given to Austria, creating tensions between the two powers.
• Impact: The war strengthened Prussia’s leadership in German affairs. It set the stage for conflict between Austria and Prussia, as both sought to control Holstein.

B). Austro-Prussian War (1866) – Exclusion of Austria from German Affairs

• Cause: Disputes over Holstein led Prussia to declare war on Austria.
• Events: Prussia, with support from Italy and smaller German states, defeated Austria in seven weeks (hence also called the Seven Weeks’ War). Prussia won the decisive Battle of Königgrätz (1866).
• Outcome: The Treaty of Prague (1866) excluded Austria from German affairs. The German Confederation was dissolved, and Prussia created the North German Confederation (1867), which united most northern German states under Prussian leadership. Austria’s influence in Germany was completely eliminated.

c). Franco-Prussian War (1870–71)

• Cause: Bismarck manipulated a diplomatic incident (the Ems Dispatch) to provoke France into declaring war on Prussia.
• Events: The German states united behind Prussia, seeing France as a common enemy. Prussian forces defeated France quickly, capturing Emperor Napoleon III at the Battle of Sedan (1870). Paris was besieged and surrendered in January 1871.
• Outcome: France was forced to cede Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. The victory sparked nationalist pride, uniting all German states under Prussia.

3. Proclamation of the German Empire (1871)

The German Empire was proclaimed on January 18, 1871, at the Palace of Versailles after Prussia’s victory over France. King Wilhelm I of Prussia was declared the first German Emperor (Kaiser).

a). Formation of the German Empire

• On January 18, 1871, the German Empire was officially proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles (France).
• King Wilhelm I of Prussia was crowned Kaiser (Emperor) of Germany. Germany was now a unified nation, led by Prussia as the dominant power.

b). Bismarck’s Role in Strengthening the Newly Unified Germany

After unification, Bismarck focused on strengthening Germany’s internal and external position:

• Maintained Prussian dominance: Though Germany was unified, Prussia remained the strongest state in the new empire.
• Industrial and Economic Growth: Germany rapidly industrialized, becoming a leading European economic power.
• Foreign Policy (Balance of Power):
  • Bismarck isolated France diplomatically, preventing it from forming alliances against Germany.
  • Created the Triple Alliance (1882) with Austria-Hungary and Italy to counterbalance France.

c). Shift in European Balance of Power

• Germany became the strongest power in Europe, leading to new rivalries, particularly with France and Britain.
• The unification ended Austrian dominance in Central Europe, replacing it with German influence.
• France sought revenge for its defeat, leading to rising tensions that eventually contributed to World War I (1914–1918).

4. Consequences of Unification

The unification of Germany in 1871 transformed it into a dominant European power, both politically and economically.

1. Political Consolidation – Germany emerged as a strong centralized state under Prussian leadership, ending political fragmentation.
2. Military Power – The unified Germany became a dominant military force in Europe, altering the balance of power.
3. Economic Growth – It led to rapid industrialization, improved infrastructure, and the rise of Germany as an economic powerhouse.
4. Nationalism – Unification strengthened nationalist sentiments, influencing German identity and future political movements.
5. Diplomatic Tensions – Germany’s rise created tensions with neighbouring powers, contributing to rivalries that led to World War I.
6. Colonial Expansion – Germany pursued colonial ambitions in Africa and Asia, competing with European powers.
7. Constitutional Monarchy – The German Empire was established as a constitutional monarchy with limited democratic reforms.
8. Impact on Europe – The unification reshaped European politics, leading to the formation of new alliances and military rivalries.

5. Shift in European Power Dynamics

• Germany’s rise after unification created new tensions in Europe, especially with France and Britain. The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) had left France humiliated, leading to demands for revenge.
• Germany’s industrial and military growth threatened Britain’s economic dominance, sparking a new era of imperialist competition. Austria-Hungary, which had been weakened by German unification, focused on expanding its influence in the Balkans, leading to tensions with Russia.
• The balance of power in Europe shifted, eventually contributing to the alliances and conflicts that led to World War I (1914–1918).

Influence on Other Nationalist Movements

The unification of Italy and Germany inspired nationalist movements across Europe and beyond. The success of these unifications demonstrated the power of nationalism and collective identity. It influenced independence movements in Eastern Europe, the Balkans, and colonial territories in the 20th century.

1. Rise of Nationalism in Eastern Europe and the Balkans

• The success of German and Italian unification inspired nationalist movements in Eastern Europe and the Balkans, where many ethnic groups were under Austrian, Russian, and Ottoman rule.
• Polish, Hungarian, Czech, and Slavic nationalist movements grew stronger, demanding independence from Austria-Hungary and Russia.
• In the Balkans, nationalist uprisings against the Ottoman Empire intensified, leading to the independence of Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Romania. Austria-Hungary and Russia competed for influence in the Balkans, increasing tensions that would later contribute to World War I.

2. Impact on World War I Due to Growing Nationalist Tensions

• The nationalist desire for territorial expansion and ethnic unity fuelled conflicts between European nations. Germany’s military and economic strength made it a central power in European politics, leading to its involvement in military alliances (Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy).
• Austria-Hungary’s opposition to Slavic nationalism led to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914) in Sarajevo, which sparked World War I. Nationalism fuelled militarism and competition, as each nation sought to expand its influence and protect its interests.

Conclusion

The unifications of Italy and Germany established modern nation-states, reinforcing self-determination and national identity. However, nationalism also fuelled territorial conflicts and the collapse of empires after the World Wars.

Strong leadership and strategic diplomacy were key, with Bismarck’s Realpolitik ensuring Germany’s success, while Italy struggled with governance. Germany’s economic strength ensured stability, whereas Italy faced challenges. Nationalism’s impact as both a unifying and divisive force continues to shape global politics.