The term stupa was used for the first time in Rigveda but did not refer to any architecture at that time. In the Rig Vedic age, the Stupa was the “shape of fire” coming out of alters during yajna. In some unknown source, we found that King Varuna raised a stupa in the forest without any foundation. According to the Pali language, “Thupa” means a conical mound.

During the later Vedic age, the Stupa was built at the place of the cremation of influential personalities using wood and other materials. Stupa architecture emerged in 5 th century BC and continued for thousands of years.

Early Burial Architecture in India

This Burial stone structure appeared in the Neolithic and persisted into the Chalcolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages in India. We call these Megalith burials, which are widespread in Kashmir, the Deccan, and South and North East India. However, it is more prominent in the South India.

Stupas are a bit different. When the burial of a Shramana (an ascetic monk) takes place in a seated position it is called a Stupa. In earliest Buddist inscriptions, the term stupa is also used synonymously to Chaitya (a shrine). It means that early Buddhists started revering the burial sites of important personalities as holy places.

The Emergence of stupa architecture

Stupa architecture is largely associated with Buddhism as they were built in large numbers after Buddha’s death. They encapsulated the remains of Buddha and early Buddhist saints and were places of reverence. They also symbolised the transience of this world, which was Buddha’s last message that “the world is temporary and everyone must work diligently”.

When Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana (liberation), his relics were spread across 8 Stupas:Ajatasatru-Rajagriha;

Licchhavis-Vaishali;
Shakyas-Kapila Vastu;
Kaliyam-Ramagrama;
Buliyan-Allakappa;
Malla’s-Pavapur;
Malla’s-Kushinagar;
Brahmana-Vethadipa;

After emerging in the 5th century BCE, the most remarkable progress in stupa architecture took place during the reign of Ashoka. According to ‘MahaparinirvanaSutta’, 10 stupas were erected by 10 great personalities of that age. By the times of Indo-Greeks and Shungas, thousands of stupas were constructed all over India. According to Buddhists, around 84000 stupas were erected in total.

The basic structure of a Stupa

Buddhist stupas, under the Shungas, had attained a standard characteristic architecture. The Stupa consists of the following elements:

A cylindrical Drum
A hemispherical structure Anda which encloses a casket with relicts.
A Harmikafollowed by chatris, which signified the axis of the world.
Stupa lies on a raised platform or
The Medhi is enclosed with Vedika or boundary wall.
The Pradakshina path (circum-ambulatory) was between the medhi and the Vedika. Here people walk around the stupa clockwise to mark their devotion.

During the age of Ashoka, the ‘Anda’ of the Stupa was covered with bricks. ‘Torana ‘ and ‘Vedika’ were made of wood. During the post-Mauryan period, the stone was used to cover Anda, Torana and Vedika. These modifications were carried out even in old stupas.

Over the centuries, the structure of the Stupa changed. Further, there were many geographical variations. Therefore, these elements can differ for each Stupa.

Sanchi stupa

It is situated at the Hilltop of Sanchi Town in Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh. This Stupa was discovered and excavated by Herbert Taylor (1888 AD), Alexander Cunningham, and Frederick Maisey, respectively.

The Three Stupas at Sanchi

Stupa-1: Presumed to have relics of Buddha, Stupa-1 is older. But, carvings on Stupa 2 are older. Since the rigidity in sculptures of Stupa-2 is more than Stupa-1. This is because several additions were made by Shungas and Satvahanas to this Stupa. Initially, stupa-1 was a small brick structure, which was expanded over a period and was covered with stone, wooden Vedika (covering pradakshina path) and torana (gateways).

Stupa-2: relics of 10 less famous arhats belonging to different generations. Names found on Relics casket.

Stupa-3: Relics of Sariputta & Mahamougalayana.

Sanchi stupa of Ashoka was constructed on the remains of ‘Sariputta’, and ‘MahaMogallana’ was also of this category. So, we can consider it as a Relic type of Stupa. This is the most well-preserved Stupa in the Indian subcontinent. This Stupa was built under the direct supervision of Ashoka’s queen, Devi.

This Stupa is also famous as ‘Maha Stupa’ or ‘The Great Stupa’.

Additions by Agnimitra Shunga:

Sungas in north India patronised stupa architecture.

Pushyamitra (founder of the Sunga dynasty) Sunga is considered anti-Buddhist. According to the Buddhist text ‘Ashokavandana,’ he destroyed Buddhist monasteries, including the Maha stupa at Sanchi.

In contrast, Agnimitra (son of Pushyamitra), the hero of ‘Malvikaagnimitram’ (a drama composed by Kalidasa in Sanskrit), repaired the ‘Sanchi Stupa’ of Ashoka destroyed by his father and built 2 new stupas in Sanchi.

Great Stupa under the Sungas: This Stupa was repaired and enlarged to double its original size by adding layers of stone to its ‘Anda’ by Agnimitra. He replaced the wooden railings and toranas of Ashoka’s Stupa with stone.

Additions done by Shungas to Stupa 1

Balustrade & staircase (Source)	Shunga stonework (Source)	Vedika with inscriptions (Source)

Additions by Satkarni:

The eastern Malwa from the Shungas was conquered by Satavahana under Satakarni II. This gave the Satavahanas ingress to the Buddhist site of Sanchi, where they are credited with building the decorated gateways around the original Mauryan Empireand Sunga stupas.
From the 1st century BCE, highly decorated gateways were built. The balustrade and the gateways were also coloured.

The Gateway(Southern) Of The Great Stupa At Sanchi (Source)

Depictions on Sanchi Stupa

It is one of the most well-preserved Stupas in India. The sculptures and carvings found at Torana of Sanchi stupa provide essential information about life in India in the 1^st century BCE.

Scenes related to previous birth stories of Buddha (jataka stories) have been portrayed.
Processions of animals and human beings joining to visit Buddha are portrayed.
Buddha was generally depicted through symbols. Symbols like wheels, elephants, horses and footmarks were shown.
Folk deities such as yaksha and yakshini were also prevalent in stupas. It appears that it was a conscious strategy adopted by Buddhists to impress ordinary people and convince them about the greatness of Buddha.
Carvings found on toranas indicate that they were initially made of wood because such kinds of curvings could be carried out easily on wood.

Today, the ancient town of Sanchi is synonymous with the Buddhist Stupa. In fact, UNESCO conferred the status of ‘World Heritage Site’ in 1989 to this Great Stupa.

Did you Know?

Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money for the preservation of the Sanchi Stupa site site. For this contribution, John Marshall dedicated his important volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan. She founded the museum, his guesthouse where wrote the volumes, and the publication of the volumes. It is one of the few sites from where sculptures were not carried away to the museums of Europe. This allowed us to understand the evolution of early Buddhism better.

North India	South India
1. The prominent presence of Torana.	1. The absence of Torana
2. No decorations on Anda.	2. Decorations were prominent in Anda.
3. Buddha is depicted by symbols.	3. Buddha is depicted by symbols as well as in anthropomorphic forms.

Early Stupas in South India

Satvahana in Deccan patronised the stupa architecture. Satvahanas built one Stupa at Amravati, famously known as ‘Maha Chaitya’. According to an inscription on its railing, this Stupa was repaired and ornamented by satvahana king Pulamagyi.

Ikshvaku king Virpurushadutta built one Stupa at ‘Nagarjunikonda’ (capital of Ikshvakus) in the 3rd century AD. It was initially known as ‘vijayapura’.

The name Nagarjunikonda was given because it was the birthplace of the Buddhist monk Nagarjuna. A.H. longhurst discovered this Stupa in 1826 AD.

Evolution in the Post-Mauryan Age

When the Western Invasions of Ancient India started, several design updates were done by the new rulers.

Let’s take an example of the Great Stupa of Butkara in the Swat Valley of Pakistan, which is currently in ruins. The original stupa built by Ashoka was a simple mound. The Indo-Greeks, the Sakas (Indo-Sycythians) and the Kushans built over this stupa.

The Kushana Stupas used to be very high due to several layers of Chhatra, as shown in the Bronze image below. These were visible to travellers from great distances with flags flying over them.

Guptas

During the Gupta age, stupa architecture was practised along with temple architecture. Only one Stupa, ‘The Dhamek stupa of Sarnath,’ was built during Gupta’s.

Chinese traveller Huien T Sang (who visited India during 629-645 CE, in the Post Gupta age) saw the Ashokan stupa at Tamralipti, Pundravardhana and karnasubarana, all in Bengal, still surviving.

After this age, not many stupas were built.

Types of Stupas based on form and function

There are five types of stupas; can classify them as Relic stupas, Object stupas, Commemorative stupas, Symbolic stupas and Votive stupas. A stupa is thought to bring enlightenment to the one who builds and owns it; it is also considered a place of worship for many Buddhists.

Relic stupas

Most stupas were initially built on the body remains of Buddhas or Bodhisattvas or revered personalities. They were therefore considered sacred.
Remain like tooth, hair or bones were put in a cascade of these stupas.
Out of the 10 stupas mentioned above built after Buddha’s death, 8 were relict stupas.
Piprahawa stupa and sanchi stupa of Ashoka were also of this type.

Object stupa

These stupas were built over the items used by Buddha or bodhisattvas.
Kesariya stupa, located in the east Champaran district, was in this category.

Commemorative Stupa

This Stupa was built at places where significant events associated with Buddha’s life took place.
Dharmarajika stupa, Lumbini Stupa and Bodhgaya Stupa were of this category built by Ashoka.
Ashoka visited Lumbini and Bodhgaya during his reign. During these visits, the stupas were constructed.
The Dhamek stupa, built at Sarnath during the Guptas, also belongs to this category.

Symbolic Stupa

These stupas were built to symbolise the invisible presence of Buddha.
Bharhut Stupa, Amaravati Stupa and Nagarjuna Konda Stupa were prominent examples of this category.

Votive Stupa

Devotees built these stupas near the main Stupa at Buddhist pilgrimage places. These were generally very small in size.
Devotees built them to earn merit.
Many such Stupas can be seen at Vaishali, Sarnath and

Major stupas in Indian subcontinent

Bairat stupa

Bairat Temple is a freestanding Buddhist Chaityagriha located in Viratnagar, present-day Rajasthan. It was a circular temple enclosed by a circular colonnade.

Ashoka built this Stupa around the 3rd century BCE. Ashoka’s Minor Rock Edicts number 3 has been found here.

Piprahawa stupa

Situated in the Siddharth Nagar district of Uttar Pradesh, William Claxton Peppe discovered it in 1898. Vases found in the Stupa contain relics of Nanda (Buddha’s cousin) as revealed by inscription.

The Stupa was built in 4 th century BC in wood, probably the oldest archaeologically known stupa.

The Five Reliquaries Discovered In Piprahwa (Source)

A Portion Of The Piprahwa Vase Inscription (Source)

Kesariya stupa

Kesariya stupa, located in the east Champaran district, was a type of object
This Stupa was discovered by a team led by archaeologist K. Muhammad.
This Stupa was built over the ‘begging bowl’ of the Buddha.
Kesariya was mentioned by the Chinese traveller Hiuen T Sang as ‘Kai-Shi-Po-Lo’ in his book Si-Yu Ki.
Buddha’s teacher Allarakama was from this place.
The discovery of the gold coins of Kanishka gives it immense significance.

Bharhut Stupa

This is a symbolic type of Stupa built by King Ashoka, about 150km east of Jabalpur. General Alexander Cunningham discovered it in 1873 AD.

This Stupa is available only in fragments, which are kept in museums located at Varanasi, Calcutta and London.
It was initially built with bricks, railings and gateways constructed of wood. Later it was replaced with stone by Agnimitra.
An inscription found in the eastern gateway of this Stupa informs that it was erected by sunga king Dhanabhuti.
Eastern Gateway (Source)

Amaravati Stupa

The Amaravati Stupa is a ruined Buddhist stupa at the village of Amaravathi, Palnadu district, Andhra Pradesh (on the banks of the Krishna River). This was also a type of symbolic Stupa.

Amaravati was earlier known as Dhanyakataka and Dharanikota.
Amaravati Stupa was built during satavahanas. It was repaired and ornamented by King Ikshvaku’s were also associated with this Stupa. This Stupa is also known as ‘Maha chaitya’.
Colonel Colin Mackenzie discovered it in 1797. He prepared sketches of this Stupa based on their remains. In 1845 AD, Sir Walter Elliot excavated this Stupa further.
This Stupa is different from the Bharhut and Sanchi stupas. It had freestanding columns surmounted by lions near the gateways.
The dome was covered with sculptured panels.
The Stupa had an upper circumambulatory path on the drumas at Sanchi. This path had two intricately carved railings. The stone is greenish-white limestone of the region.
This Stupa was unique because a pillar near the main Torana was worshipped by devotees, known as the ‘Ayaka pillar’.
Other locations where the Stupa were Built in Southern India – Goli, Jaggiahpeta, Bhattiprolu, Gantasala, Nagarjunakonda

Restored Remains Of Amaravati Stupa (Source)

Reconstructed Section Of Railing — Reconstructed Section Of The Later Railing At The Site Museum (Source)

Elliot Marbles

In 1845, Sir Walter Elliot Guntur (Andhra Pradesh), visited Amaravati and collected several sculpture panels and took them away to Madras. He also discovered the remains of the Western Gateway and concluded that the structure at Amaravati was one of the largest and most magnificent Buddhist stupas ever built.

By the 1850s, some of the slabs from Amaravati had begun to be taken to different places, such as to the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta, to the India Office in Madras and some even to London. These came to be known as the Elliot Marbles.

The sad result of this loot was that the Amaravati Stupas could not be revived like the site at Sanchi.

Dhamek stupa

It is located at Sarnath, 13 kilometres from Varanasi. We can also find an Ashoka pillar with an edict engraved on this site, although the stupa itself was built in the 5^th Century CE.

While visiting Sarnath, Hiuen T Sang recorded that the colony had over 1,500 priests, and the main Stupa was nearly 91 m high.

It is a Commemorative Stupa, and marks the spot Rishipattana, where Buddha offered the first sermon to his first 5 disciples after attaining enlightenment, “revealing his Eightfold Path leading to nirvana”.

Worship at stupas

Both the Hinayana and Mahayana sects of Buddhism worshipped stupas. The Mahayanists constructed stupas not only for Buddha but also for Bodhisattvas. The Hinyanists built stupas only for Buddha, not for Arhats.

Mahabodhi temple, Gaya (Bihar)

Monk Siddhartha became enlightened in Bodhgaya, Bihar. The Archaeological finds at this place indicate that the site has been venerated by the Buddhists since at least the Mauryan times.

It is said that the Mahabodhi temple was constructed during the reign of Ashoka. There is a use of brickwork, said to have constructed by King Ashoka; The Vajrasana (stone platform), where Buddha gained enlightenment is dated back to 3^rd Century BCE. Vedika is post–Mauryan, about 100 BCE; many of the sculptures in the niches in the temple are dated to 8^th century Pala period.

The Mahabodhi temple, in its present form, was largely constructed during the 7th century. It is neither Dravida or Nagara but It is narrow like Nagara temple but rises without curving like Dravida Temple. The crowning element of the temple has an Amalaka, topped by a stupa like structure with several layers of Chhatra.

By the 19^th century the temple was in ruins, and was heavily repaired during the colonial times.

Related FAQs of Stupa Architecture

1. What is a Stupa, and how did it originate?

A Stupa is a dome-shaped structure that originated as a burial mound for ascetic monks. It became an important part of Buddhist architecture after Buddha’s death, symbolizing his relics, teachings, and the impermanence of life. The term “Stupa” first appeared in the Rigveda but wasn’t architectural in nature back then.

2. Why is the Sanchi Stupa considered so important?

The Great Stupa at Sanchi, originally built by Ashoka, is one of the most well-preserved stupas in India. It was later expanded and artistically enhanced by the Shungas and Satavahanas. It is known for its beautiful toranas (gateways), symbolic carvings, and historical significance. It’s also a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

3. What are the key components of a Buddhist Stupa?

A typical stupa includes a hemispherical dome (Anda), cylindrical base (Drum), harmika (a square railing), chatri (umbrella-like structure), medhi (raised platform), vedika (boundary wall), and a pradakshina path for circumambulation.

4. Are all stupas the same?

No, stupas vary based on form and function. There are five types: Relic Stupas (built over remains), Object Stupas (built over personal items), Commemorative Stupas (marking important events), Symbolic Stupas (representing Buddhist ideas), and Votive Stupas (built by devotees for merit).

5. Which are the most famous stupas in India?

Some major stupas include Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh), Amaravati Stupa (Andhra Pradesh), Dhamek Stupa (Sarnath), Kesariya Stupa (Bihar), Piprahwa Stupa (Uttar Pradesh), and Bharhut Stupa (Madhya Pradesh). Each has unique historical and architectural significance.

Stupa Architecture