Ecology: Greek words ‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’, ‘logy’ meaning the ‘science of’. Literally, ecology is the study of the earth as a ‘household’, of plants, human beings, animals and micro-organisms. They all live together as interdependent components. German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who used the term as ‘oekologie’ in 1869, became the first person to use the…
On the basis of how the air pollution impacts human health, certain standards for Air pollution have been set. Such standards are often set only for the Ambient air, i.e. the air surrounding us in the outdoors. WHO establishes Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) based on scientific evidence of health risks. It sets limits for…
Particulate matter is the minute solid particles or liquid droplets in the air such as dust, mist, fumes, smoke and smog. Present in vehicle emissions, smoke particles from fires, dust, and ash from industries. These Particles can be classified into two categories: Viable: For example, minute living organisms’ bacteria, fungi, moulds, algae etc. Humans are…
Carbon pricing is an instrument that captures the external costs of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This is levied on the Carbon emitters and is used as a relief against the loss that occurred due to Climate Change. It is based on the Polluter Pays principle. The problem of accounting for loss due to Climate Change:…
Pollution is defined as the accumulation of substances or forms of energy in an environment in quantities or at flow rates, which exceed an ecosystem’s capacity to either neutralise or disperse them to harmless levels. (RF Dasmann – 1975). What do the terms used in this definition mean? Pollution can happen through various mediums, such…
Climate change refers to long-term changes in temperature, precipitation, and other atmospheric conditions on Earth. In the history of its evolution over a period of 4.5 billion years, the Earth has witnessed several events of climate change, many of which have led to mass extinctions. In recent times, humans have created yet another unprecedented change…
Economics is the social science that focuses on the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. What is an Economic activity? All activities involving money are called economic activities. It is any activity that contributes to that economy. Economic activity occurs when resources such as capital, labour, manufacturing techniques or intermediary products are combined…
Infrastructure is the set of provisions that serve a country, city, or other area. It encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households, and firms. In a similar sense, industrial infrastructure is the set of provisions that are needed to serve the needs of the manufacturing sector. These may include public infrastructure, such as…
![What Is Social Infrastructure: Meaning, Importance & Challenges [Upsc Notes]](https://www.99notes.in/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/social-infrastructure-99notes-upsc-1-768x512.webp "What Is Social Infrastructure: Meaning, Importance &Amp; Challenges [Upsc Notes] | Updated February 21, 2025")
What is Social Infrastructure? Meaning of Social Infrastructure is to creating and maintaining facilities and structures that support the delivery of social services, which are essential for social development and, thereby, the overall development of a country. Social Infrastructure is the set of organizational arrangements and investments in society’s systems, relationships, and structures that enable us…
Housing Sector in India The housing industry is one of the pillars of the economic foundations of our country and one of the fastest-growing sectors. For our understanding in the context of policymaking and the UPSC syllabus, we shall classify the housing sector into three categories: Affordable Housing Rural Housing Urban Housing AFFORDABLE HOUSING and…