Human Migration- UPSC Notes

Human migration is the movement of people from one place to another, intending to settle, permanently or temporarily, at a new location (geographic region). The person who migrates is known as the Migrant.

It has a big impact on the population growth of a region. It may be interpreted as a spontaneous effort to achieve a better balance between population and resources.

Basic Definitions

• The place they move from is called the Place of Origin and
• The place they move to is called the Place of Destination.
• Emigrants: Who leaves the country; Immigrants: who arrive in the country.
• In-migration or Immigration: The phenomenon of influx of population into a place. For example, US & Australia have gained population in the past few years.
• Out-migration or emigration: The phenomenon of outflux of population from a place.  Sudan has experienced a loss in numbers in the past few years.

Impact of Migration on Population Change

We have learned in the previous chapter that the Population is affected by only three factors:

1. Birth rate (number of live births per 1,000 people),
2. death rate (number of deaths per 1,000 people), and
3. migration.

In the previous chapter, we studied about how the population changes because of the population growth. In this chapter, we will study the effect of migration on the population.

Types of Migration:

Based on Geographical boundary

Based on the type of geographical boundary crossed during the migration, it can be classified as:

1. The movement often occurs over long distances and from one country to another, known as external migration.
2. Internal migration is the migration within a single country. Internal migration is the dominant form of human migration globally.

Based on the duration of migration

Migration can be classified into three main categories based on the duration and nature of movement:

1. Permanent Migration: This type of migration involves individuals or groups moving to a new location to settle there permanently. They may leave their place of origin due to factors like economic opportunities, better living conditions, political instability, or social factors. Examples include international migration for work or refugees moving due to conflict.
2. Temporary Migration: Temporary migration refers to the movement of people for a specific period, often for work, education, or healthcare. Migrants return to their place of origin after the specified period. Examples include people moving to urban areas for job opportunities or students studying abroad for a set time.
3. Seasonal Migration: Seasonal migration is characterized by people moving between locations depending on the time of year, usually in response to agricultural cycles or climate. For example, migrant workers in agriculture may move from rural areas to work in fields during harvest seasons, or herders may move their livestock to higher altitudes during the summer months.

Factors that influence Migration

In 1804, the global population was 1 billion; in 1959, it reached 3 billion; by 1999, it reached 6 billion. This was mainly because of improved living conditions, i.e. better food supplies and medicine.

The same factors affect the migration patterns. Those places that have better living conditions pull populations from other places.

Push factors:

The factors that make the place of origin less attractive:  

1. Political instability: Political, religious and social persecution. Kashmiri Pandits, Tibitan migrants, Rohingyas
2. Disasters: Chornobyl – the city was evacuated after the nuclear accident.
3. Lack of Economic opportunities: Each year lakhs of migratory labour from Bundelkhand shift to Delhi and nearby areas in search of work.
4. Economic instability – For example, high rates of inflation.
5. Lack of resources –
6. Climate change – Around 2.5% of Tuvalu’s population migrates to Australia each year, as the sea level rises.

Pull Factors:

Factors that make destination seem more attractive.

1. Economic opportunities – During the summers, when agricultural work is minimal in rural areas, Delhi attracts migrants as construction labourers. High-paying jobs attract a large section of Indians to Canada, the USA and other West European countries.
2. Better Infrastructure – Urban areas attract people due to better civic infrastructure, such as better hospitals.
3. Educational opportunities – A large number of students migrate from India to Russia for Medical training. Similarly, Delhi attracts students from all over north India due to its better educational opportunities.
4. Political stability – A large number of Mexicans cross the US border illegally due to better governance.
5. Better tax regime: Lower tax rates have prompted many Indians to shift to Singapore.

Gender Distinction in Migration

Push and Pull factors can be different for males and females: For example, work and employment have remained the main cause for male migration (38%) while it is only 3% for females.

Contrary to this, about 65% of females move out of their parental houses following their marriage. This is the most important cause in the rural areas of India except in Meghalaya where the reverse is the case (Matrilineal society – man moves to woman’s house after marriage but not Matriarchal – lineage patriarchal).

Leaving wives behind puts extra physical and Mental pressure.

Recording Migration:

In India, Migration is recorded in the Census and is enumerated on two basis:

1. Place of birth: if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time migrant);
2. Place of residence: if the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration (known as migrant by place of last residence).

The Census has been recording migration in the following ways:

• The Census always records the place of residence.
  • Since the 1961 Census, the place of birth and duration of residence have been recorded.
  • In 1971, additional information on the last place of residence and duration of stay.
  • In 1981, Information on reasons of Migration.

As per the 2001 census, out of 1,029 million people in the country, 307 million (30 %) were reported as migrants by place of birth. However, this figure was 315 million (31%) in case of place of last residence.

Source: India – People and Economy, NCERT

Spatial Variation in Migration:

Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana attract migrants from other states like UP (-2.6 million) and Bihar (-1.7 million). Greater Mumbai Urban Agglomeration (UA) received the highest number of migrants. Interstate migration constituted the largest share of it.

Consequences of Migration:

Economic consequences:

• Remittances sent by international migrants can be a source of foreign exchange. India got $79bn in 2019(highest followed by China); Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu received a very significant amount. The amount sent by internal migrants is very meagre compared to international migrants but plays an important role in the growth of the economy of the source area (area of economic activity). For Bihar, UP, Odisha, AP HIMACHAL PRADESH etc. remittances work as the lifeblood of their economy.
• Economic development in the region of Influx: Migration from East UP, Bihar, MP and Odisha to Punjab, Haryana, and Western UP accounted for the success of the Green Revolution.

Demographic Consequences:

It leads to the redistribution of population within the country.

• Age and skill selective migration from rural areas: adverse effect on rural demographic structure.
• UK, Rajasthan, MP and Eastern Maharashtra have both serious imbalances in age and sex composition.
• Migration of ‘women’ either for education or employment enhances their vulnerability.

Social Consequences of Migration:

Acts as agents of social change: New ideas related to new technologies, family planning, girls’ education etc. get diffused from urban to rural areas through them.

• Migration leads to the intermixing of people from diverse cultures – the evolution of composite culture and the breaking of narrow considerations.
• Negative consequence: anonymity: creates a social vacuum and a sense of dejection among individuals.
• Unregulated migration to Metropolitan cities: caused overcrowding.
• Development of slums in industrially developed states: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi.

Environmental Consequences:

Overcrowding of people due to rural-urban migration.

• Over-exploitation of natural resources, cities face acute depletion of groundwater, air pollution, disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes.

We have dealt with these issues in the Infrastructure section of the Economics and Society books too.

Internal Migration in India

The Economic Survey of 2016 has shed light on the migration patterns in India. Using the Data from the railways (ticket sales for the unreserved seats), flows of migrants at an all-India level have averaged close to 9Mn, peaking around 2013-14, considerably above levels suggested by the Census.

Out Migration:

Relatively less developed states such as Bihar and UP have high net outmigration. They account for half of the total migration. Other regions were MP & Jharkhand.

For example, Azamgarh district in eastern UP, known for high out-migration, shows a reduction of 24%, after adjusting for cohort mortality.

In-Migration:

Relatively more developed states have net in-migration: Goa, Delhi, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. Delhi region (NCR) is the largest recipient and accounted for more than half of migration in 2015-16.

For example, Gurugram district, known for high in-migration, shows a jump of 29% between 2001 and 2011 in the age cohort.

Kolkata attracts migrants from nearby states of Jharkhand, UP, and Odisha. Surat has started acting as a counter-magnet region to Mumbai and attracts migrants from the neighbouring districts.

For India as a whole, the annual net flows amount to about 1% of the working-age population.

Year-wise changes in migration

• As per the 2001 Census, the 20-29 age group formed a fifth (11Mn) of all migrants. Nearly 80% of these migrants were males in 1991-2000 and 2001-11.
• In 2001-11: It increased to 16Mn, with 75% being males. Total migration thus yields to 80Mn people.
• In the 2010s, the Out-migration rates increased in MP, Bihar and UP and dipped in Assam.
• In recent years the tendency to migrate has slowed down. There is a reduction in Domestic Migrant Numbers by about 12% from 45.57 crore to 40.20 crore in 2023 with the migration rate dropping from ~38% to an estimated ~29% in 2023.