Tripartite struggle (790-1162AD) History, Cause & Consequences [UPSC Notes]

Tripartite Struggle

The Tripartite Struggle, aka The Kannauj Triangle Wars, was the struggle for the control of northern India that took place in the 8th and 9^th Centuries among the Pratihara, the Pala and the Rashtrakuta Empire. The struggle centered around the city of Kannauj, known for its wealth and strategic importance

After the decline of Harsha’s empire in the 7^th century, several large states arose in North India, the Deccan, and South India. The Palas, the Pratiharas, and the Rashtrakutas were prominent among them.

Who Were the Parties Involved in the Tripartite Struggle?

Three parties were involved in the Tripartite Struggle: 1. Rashtrakuta Dynasty, 2. Pratihar Dynasty, 3. Pala Dynasty. The Palas originated from the Gauda region of Bengal in eastern India. At the same time, the Pratiharas rose from the Mandor (Avanti-Jalaor region) area in western India. The Deccan area of India came to be dominated by the Rastrakutas.

1. The Rashtrakuta Dynasty

• • In Sanskrit, the name ‘Rashtrakuta’ means ‘Country’ (Rashtra) and ‘Chieftain’ (Kuta). The word Rathika appears in Ashoka’s (Mansehra, Girnar and Dhavali) edicts, which may have been the Rashtrakutas’ ancestors.

• • However, their ascension began in 753 CE, when Dantidurga, a feudatory of the Chalukyas of Badami, defeated their King Kirtivarman II.

• • In 753CE, he took the title Rajadhiraja declaring himself king over local feudal kings according to the Ellora record of Dantidurga. Eventually, the Rashtrakutas controlled all of the Deccan and central India, becoming the strongest house in India.

2. The Gurjara Pratihar Dynasty

• • Mythological theories:
    • • Chander Bardai has mentioned in Prithviraj Raso that Pratiharas have emerged from an Agni-kund during a sacrifice performed by Sage Vashista on Abu Mountain.
    • • The literary meaning of Pratihara is doorkeepers. It is believed that they are descendants of Lakshmana, who served as his brother Rama’s doorkeeper, hence the name Pratihara.

• • The Pratiharas of Mandavyapura (today’s Mandor near Jodhpur) first appeared in the 6^th Century CE. By the 8^th century, they emerged as the powerful Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty, which ruled between mid 8^th To 11^th centuries.

• • Nagabhatta-I was the founder of the Gurjara Pratihar Dynasty. He is believed to have ruled between about 730 CE – 760 CE.

• • However, Gurjaras existed before Nagabhatta-I, as mentioned in Banabhatta’s Harshacharita and Ravikirti’s Aihole inscription. In all such inscriptions, they are mentioned as Gurjaras, even though they called themselves Pratirharas.

• • Mihir Bhoja, the hero of Gwalior Prashasti, is considered its greatest ruler.

3. The Pala Dynasty 

• • Soon after the death of Gauda King Shashanka, lawlessness (Matsyanyaya) erupted in the country’s northern and eastern parts, allowing the Palas to seize control and establish the Pala Empire.

• • Gopala founded the Pala empire in 750CE after being elected as king by his feudal lords. He established Odantapuri University in Bihar Sharif.

• • Its greatest ruler Dharmapala founded the Vikramshila University in Bhagalpur and a Buddhist monastery in Gaya. 

• • They controlled Bengal and Bihar for nearly 400 years, from the 8th to the 12th centuries. Rulers of this dynasty had ‘Pala’ in their name, which means ‘protector’.

Pala(750-1161AD)	Gurjara-Pratihara(730-1036AD)	Rashtrakuta(753-982AD)
	FOUNDERS
Gopala(750-770AD)	Nagabhatta I(730–760AD)	Dantidurga(753-756AD)
● His feudal chiefs elected him as the emperor of the Gauda in the 8th century. ● Capital at Mudgagiri (now Munger). ● He unified Bengal and brought Magadh under his control.	● capital at Ujjain ● reign from Mandor to Gwalior ● Checked the expansion of Arabs (called them Mlechcha kings). He was succeeded by his nephews, Kakkuka and Devaraja.	● Capital Manyakhet (Sholapur) ● He was earlier a feudatory of Chalukyas and defeated them in 753AD (in the Ellora records) He was succeeded by Krishna I (756 – 774AD), who built the rock-cut Kailash temple at Ellora.

Tripartite struggle Phases

Phase-I of the Tripartite Struggle:

The first phase of the tripartite struggle ( Kannauj conflict) began around 790 AD with a clash between Pala king Dharmapala and Pratihara king Vatsaraja at Prayaga, which resulted in the defeat of Dharmapala.

Later Vatsaraja was defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva. However, Dhruva was unable to consolidate his victory because he needed to return to the south to attend to the conflict with the Chalukyas of Vengi.

	Phase I of the Tripartite Struggle
Pala	Gurjara-Pratihara	Rashtrakuta
Dharampala (770-810CE) ● He was initially successful in winning Kannauj.  ● He installed a nominee named Chakrayudha in Kannauj.  ● But soon, he was defeated by Vatsaraja in Prayag and had to submit his western territories.	Vatsaraja (778-800CE): ● Took the title Ranahastin after winning Kannauj. ● Vatsaraja led an expedition against  Dharampala along with his general Durlabh Chauhan, according to the Radhanpur Plate Inscription and Prithviraja Vijaya (written by Janayaka). ● He checked the expansion of Arabs and extended his empire to Bihar.	Dhruvadhar Varsha (780-793CE) ● He defeated Vatsaraja in a difficult contest in the Ganga – Yamuna doab battle. ● However, the Rashtrakutas couldn’t retain these new territories in the north for long after Dhruva returned south.

Phase-II of Tripartite Struggle

• • Phase I of the Tripartite Struggle ensured that the Pratiharas were weakened in the north. This provided the Palas with an excellent opportunity to attack again.

• • Dharmapala took advantage of the situation and recovered Kannauj, putting Chakrayudha on the throne. He established himself as the lord of virtually all of Northern India via a series of successful expeditions.

• • A repeat of History: Vatsaraja’s successor, Pratihara ruler Nagabhatta II invaded Kannauj and established his control. This started another round of conflict. Finally, Nagabhatta II defeated Dharmapala in the battle of Munger. 

• • However, soon he was again overthrown by Govinda III of Rashtrakuta (son of Dhruva).

• • Govinda III left for the Deccan soon after this victory. This allowed Nagabhatta II to regain control of Kannauj.

• • The Pratiharas emerged victorious and established themselves as the main power in central India by the end of the tripartite struggle.

	Phase II of the Tripartite Struggle
Pala	Gurjara-Pratihara	Rashtrakuta
Dharampala (770-810CE) ● After the death of Dhruva, Dharmapala recaptured Kannauj and titled himself Uttarpathaswami (lord of Uttarpatha). ● He then installed king Chakrayudha as his vassal in Kannauj. ● According to the Munger copper plate, he offered prayer at Kedarnath and Gokama.	Nagabhatta II (795-833AD) ● He captured Kannauj and forced its King Chakrayudha to become his feudatory. ● This started another Phase of conflict with Pala, where he defeated them in Munger. ● However, this conflict left him weaker, and in a repeat of history, Rasthrakuta king Govinda III attacked him and took Kannauj back. ● Only after Govinda’s death could he recover Kannauj.	Govinda III (793-814CE) ● During his tenure, Rastrakuta might reach its zenith. ● He secured Victory over both Nagabhatta-II and Dharampala. ● According to Sanjan Plate Inscriptions, his empire reached till Himalayas. ● Nasari record  states that he then Humbled Pallava, Eastern Chalukya, and Chera.

Causes of Tripartite Struggle

Main causes of Tripartite Struggle are:

1. Prestige: During the early medieval period, Kannauj was seen as a sign of status and authority, as control of it represented political domination over northern India. It was also connected to the silk road, an ideal location for trade and commerce.
2. Control of Resources: Control of Kannauj also meant control of the Central Gangetic valley, which was rich in resources and hence strategically and commercially significant.
3. Weak rulers: Between the end of the 8^th century and the first quarter of the ninth century, three kings ruled over Kannauj: Indrayudha, Vijrayudha, and Chakrayudha. However, these kings were very weak and could be easily defeated.
4. Desire to control Uttarpath: The desire to become Sakalottarpathanath (lord of all of Uttarpath) attracted the Rashtrakutas to Kannauj. Palas wanted the title of Uttarpathaswami (lord of Uttarpath).

Aftermath of Tripartite Struggle:

• • Pratihara Controlled the North: This war lasted for a century and was finally won by the Rajput Pratihara emperor Nagabhata II, who established Kannauj as the capital of the Pratiharas, which ruled for nearly three centuries. 

• • Pratiharas consolidated the North: After Nagabhatta II’s reign, Ramabhadra lost Kannauj for a short period. However, under the able leadership of Mihir Bhoja, the north was politically united again.

• • Peace Prevailed – and the Rashtrakutas refrained from engaging with the Pratiharas. 

• • Thus both Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas experienced the zenith of their reign.

Devapala(810-850AD)	Mihir Bhoja(836-885AD)	Amoghvarsha (814-878AD)
● He extended control over Pragjyotisha (Assam) and Utakala(Odisha). ● Buddhist poet Vajradatta (author of Lokesvarasataka) was in his court. Mahendrapala(845–860AD) ● Retained control over Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. ● Carried out campaigns against the Hunas and the Utkalas. Afterwards, the empire gradually started disintegrating.	● The greatest ruler of Pratiharas. ● Recovered Kannauj (lost by his father, Ramabhadra) ● He continued conflict with Devapala and Dhruva II. ● He extended the empire to  Kashmir. ● He adopted the title Adivaraha and was a devotee of Vishnu. ● The Gwalior Prashasti celebrates him.	● He sat on the throne at the age of 14. It took him 8 years to stabilise his kingdom. ● He shifted his capital to Manyakheta. ● He followed Jainism. ● Sulaiman, the merchant, referred to him as one of the “four great kings of the world“.

Causes of Deline

• • Weak rulers: 
    • • Amoghvarsha was more interested in art than statecraft in the Deccan. 
    • • Later, Pratihara rulers proved to be poor in holding the feudatories together.

• • Feudatories declared themselves independent.
    • • The Chalukyas took control of the Rashtrakuta feudatories in western Deccan.
    • • Rajasthan feudatories declared independence from Pratiharas. Gwalior was captured by Chandela, who killed the last ruler.

• • Rebellions: 
    • • Many areas under the Palas were engulfed in rebellion and declared independence.

• • Attacks of Gazni: 
    • • Mahmud of Gazni captured Kannauj in 1018.
    • • The Palas, too, were weakened by frequent attacks by the Mahmud of Gazni.

• • The Rise of Cholas: 
    • • Mahipala I (988–1038AD), the last great Pala ruler, recovered northern and eastern Bengal and north and south Bihar. He, too, was defeated by Rajendra Chola-I in 1020-1023. 
    • • Krishna III (939-967AD) of the Rashtrakutas waged battles against the Paramaras of Malwa and Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi to revive the Rashtrakuta power. He came into conflict with the Chola king Parantaka I. Such wars proved to be costly for Rashtrakutas.

Administration of Pala and Pratihara

• • Both Palas and Pratiharas largely followed the administrative system designed by the Guptas.

• • There were two types of territories under Palas and Pratiharas:
    • • Directly administered territories.
    • • Territories under Feudal chiefs. 

• • Administration of Directly administered territories: 
    • • The directly administered territories were divided into Bhukti (provinces) and Mandala or Visaya (district). 
    • • The unit below Visaya was called Pattala.
    • • The provincial governor was called Uparika, and the district head was Visyapati.
    • • The Uparikas were used to collect land revenue. However, one of their primary duties was to maintain law and order with the help of soldiers.
    • • The Visayapatis used to perform the same duty within his jurisdiction.

• • Administration of Feudal territories:
    • • This was the period when there was an increase in minor chieftains. they were called Samantas or Bhogapatis.
    • • These petty chiefs tended to merge to form a greater feudatory unit. Later, the word Samanta began to be used indiscriminately to describe feudatories of all shapes and sizes.

Administration of Rashtrakuta

3. Sanskrit:  The great Sanskrit poet and dramatist Rajashekhara, whose works include Karampuramanjari, Bala Ramayana, Kavyamimansa and Bhuvankosh, lived in the court of  Mahipal/Mahendrapala of Gurjara-Pratihara empire.

Sources of History of Tripartite Struggle:

• • Ellora Record of Dantidurga and Samangarh inscription tells about the Rasthrakuta history.

• • The Navsari Grant tells about the Rashtrakuta history before 753CE.

• • Badal Inscription tells that the Pala ruler Devapala(810-840CE) eradicated the race of the Utkalas, humbled Hunas and scattered the pride of the Dravida and Pratiharas.”

• • Mihir Bhoja is celebrated in the inscriptions such as Gwalior Prashasti and Barah copper plate. 

• • Kalhana’s Rajatarangini states that the territories of Mihir Bhoja extended to Kashmir in the north.

• • Arabian traveller Al-Masaudi came to Gujarat during Pratihara King Mahendrapala’s reign (885-910CE)  and called the kingdom Al-Juzr and king Baura.

• • Sanjan Copper Plate inscriptions note the reign of Amoghavarsha.

Conclusion

At the end of the Tripartite Struggle, Pratiharas emerged victorious and established themselves as the rulers of central India. However, this two-century-long great power struggle weakened all three dynasties. This resulted in political disintegration in the country and benefited the Islamic invaders such as Ghazni.

FAQ’s Related to Tripartite Struggle

What is meant by tripartite struggle?

The Tripartite Struggle (790-1162 AD) was a power struggle among the Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala empires to control over Northern India, specially Kannauj.

Who were the parties involved in the tripartite struggle?

The Pratiharas of Western India, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan plateau were the key parties involved in the tripartite struggle, fought over the Gangetic plains specially Kannauj.

Who started tripartite struggle?

The Tripartite Struggle began around 790 AD with a clash between Pala king Dharmapala and Pratihara king Vatsaraja at Prayaga, leading to Dharmapala’s defeat.

Which king won the tripartite struggle?

Nagabhata II of the Pratihara dynasty finally won the Tripartite Struggle, he established Kannauj as the capital of the Pratiharas.

The Tripartite Struggle (790-1162 AD) was a power struggle among the Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala empires to control over Northern India, specially Kannauj.

The Pratiharas of Western India, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan plateau were the key parties involved in the tripartite struggle, fought over the Gangetic plains specially Kannauj.

The Tripartite Struggle began around 790 AD with a clash between Pala king Dharmapala and Pratihara king Vatsaraja at Prayaga, leading to Dharmapala’s defeat.

Nagabhata II of the Pratihara dynasty finally won the Tripartite Struggle, he established Kannauj as the capital of the Pratiharas.

Explore additional significant articles on Medieval Indian History listed in the table below:

The Chola Empire	The Rajput States
Evaluation of Rajput States	Regional Powers In South India and Deccan
Delhi Sultanate	Socio Cultural Impact of the Delhi Sultanate
The Vijayanagar Empire	Bahamani Kingdom
The Bhakti Movement	Bhakti Movement In North
The Advent of the Portuguese	The Mughal Empire
Economic and Cultural Impact of the Mughal Empire	The Decline of the Mughal Empire
Maratha Empire	Modern India

3. Sanskrit:  The great Sanskrit poet and dramatist Rajashekhara, whose works include Karampuramanjari, Bala Ramayana, Kavyamimansa and Bhuvankosh, lived in the court of  Mahipal/Mahendrapala of Gurjara-Pratihara empire.

Sources of History of Tripartite Struggle:

• • Ellora Record of Dantidurga and Samangarh inscription tells about the Rasthrakuta history.

• • The Navsari Grant tells about the Rashtrakuta history before 753CE.

• • Badal Inscription tells that the Pala ruler Devapala(810-840CE) eradicated the race of the Utkalas, humbled Hunas and scattered the pride of the Dravida and Pratiharas.”

• • Mihir Bhoja is celebrated in the inscriptions such as Gwalior Prashasti and Barah copper plate. 

• • Kalhana’s Rajatarangini states that the territories of Mihir Bhoja extended to Kashmir in the north.

• • Arabian traveller Al-Masaudi came to Gujarat during Pratihara King Mahendrapala’s reign (885-910CE)  and called the kingdom Al-Juzr and king Baura.

• • Sanjan Copper Plate inscriptions note the reign of Amoghavarsha.

Conclusion

At the end of the Tripartite Struggle, Pratiharas emerged victorious and established themselves as the rulers of central India. However, this two-century-long great power struggle weakened all three dynasties. This resulted in political disintegration in the country and benefited the Islamic invaders such as Ghazni.

FAQ’s Related to Tripartite Struggle

What is meant by tripartite struggle?

The Tripartite Struggle (790-1162 AD) was a power struggle among the Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala empires to control over Northern India, specially Kannauj.

Who were the parties involved in the tripartite struggle?

The Pratiharas of Western India, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan plateau were the key parties involved in the tripartite struggle, fought over the Gangetic plains specially Kannauj.

Who started tripartite struggle?

The Tripartite Struggle began around 790 AD with a clash between Pala king Dharmapala and Pratihara king Vatsaraja at Prayaga, leading to Dharmapala’s defeat.

Which king won the tripartite struggle?

Nagabhata II of the Pratihara dynasty finally won the Tripartite Struggle, he established Kannauj as the capital of the Pratiharas.

The Tripartite Struggle (790-1162 AD) was a power struggle among the Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala empires to control over Northern India, specially Kannauj.

The Pratiharas of Western India, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan plateau were the key parties involved in the tripartite struggle, fought over the Gangetic plains specially Kannauj.

The Tripartite Struggle began around 790 AD with a clash between Pala king Dharmapala and Pratihara king Vatsaraja at Prayaga, leading to Dharmapala’s defeat.

Nagabhata II of the Pratihara dynasty finally won the Tripartite Struggle, he established Kannauj as the capital of the Pratiharas.

Explore additional significant articles on Medieval Indian History listed in the table below:

The Chola Empire	The Rajput States
Evaluation of Rajput States	Regional Powers In South India and Deccan
Delhi Sultanate	Socio Cultural Impact of the Delhi Sultanate
The Vijayanagar Empire	Bahamani Kingdom
The Bhakti Movement	Bhakti Movement In North
The Advent of the Portuguese	The Mughal Empire
Economic and Cultural Impact of the Mughal Empire	The Decline of the Mughal Empire
Maratha Empire	Modern India

• • The Village administration was carried out by village chiefs and accountants, whose posts generally became hereditary.
    • • Generally, they were paid by grants of rent-free Land.
    • • The popular representative council played an important role in village administration. The councils had representatives from each household.
    • • The village chief was helped in his duties by Gramamahattara (a group of village elders)

Art and Architecture During Tripartite Struggle  

Sculptural style: 

• • Pratiharas and Palas developed a distinctive sculptural style in this period.

• • The Pratihara sculptures often use Sandstone, whereas Palas often used Black Basalt.

• • The sculptures of this time often form a part of the temple structure but can also be standalone.

• • The Pala-style sculptures are often polished.

Temples:

• • Pratihara-style Temples were a more developed form of Nagara Style temples. 

• • In later times, it developed into the Maru-Gurjara style of Architecture.

• • For example:
    • • Nagabhatta II built the famed Somnath temple in Gujarat. 
    • • Mihirbhoja built the Teli ka Mandir in the Gwalior fort. 

• • Pala Style of Architecture: At this time, a new style of architecture developed in Bengal, with a distinctive “Bangla dome”. These temples were generally constructed of Terracotta.

• • Vesara Style of Architecture: A distinct Vesara Style of architecture was developed under Rashtrakutas. The Kailash temple at Ellora is its most famous example. Krishna I (756 – 774AD) built the rock-cut Kailash temple at Ellora.

Development of regional Languages during Tripartite Struggle

1. Kannada: Amoghvarsha is credited with great contributions to the development of the Kannada language.

• Amoghvarsha wrote Kavirajmarga, considered the 1^st ever book in Kannada. It is the earliest available work on rhetoric, poetics, and grammar in the Kannada language.
• He patronised Indian mathematician Mahaviracharya, who wrote Ganita-Sara-samgraha and Digambar Jains monks Jinasena and Virasena.

2. Bengali: The Proto-Bengali language developed under the Pala rule. Early Bengali literature was divided into two categories:

1. Indebted to Sanskrit, and
2. Independent of it.

• Apabhramsha: The greatest Apabhramsha poet, Svayambhu, lived in the Rashtrakuta court.

3. Sanskrit:  The great Sanskrit poet and dramatist Rajashekhara, whose works include Karampuramanjari, Bala Ramayana, Kavyamimansa and Bhuvankosh, lived in the court of  Mahipal/Mahendrapala of Gurjara-Pratihara empire.

Sources of History of Tripartite Struggle:

• • Ellora Record of Dantidurga and Samangarh inscription tells about the Rasthrakuta history.

• • The Navsari Grant tells about the Rashtrakuta history before 753CE.

• • Badal Inscription tells that the Pala ruler Devapala(810-840CE) eradicated the race of the Utkalas, humbled Hunas and scattered the pride of the Dravida and Pratiharas.”

• • Mihir Bhoja is celebrated in the inscriptions such as Gwalior Prashasti and Barah copper plate. 

• • Kalhana’s Rajatarangini states that the territories of Mihir Bhoja extended to Kashmir in the north.

• • Arabian traveller Al-Masaudi came to Gujarat during Pratihara King Mahendrapala’s reign (885-910CE)  and called the kingdom Al-Juzr and king Baura.

• • Sanjan Copper Plate inscriptions note the reign of Amoghavarsha.

Conclusion

At the end of the Tripartite Struggle, Pratiharas emerged victorious and established themselves as the rulers of central India. However, this two-century-long great power struggle weakened all three dynasties. This resulted in political disintegration in the country and benefited the Islamic invaders such as Ghazni.

FAQ’s Related to Tripartite Struggle

What is meant by tripartite struggle?

The Tripartite Struggle (790-1162 AD) was a power struggle among the Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala empires to control over Northern India, specially Kannauj.

Who were the parties involved in the tripartite struggle?

The Pratiharas of Western India, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan plateau were the key parties involved in the tripartite struggle, fought over the Gangetic plains specially Kannauj.

Who started tripartite struggle?

The Tripartite Struggle began around 790 AD with a clash between Pala king Dharmapala and Pratihara king Vatsaraja at Prayaga, leading to Dharmapala’s defeat.

Which king won the tripartite struggle?

Nagabhata II of the Pratihara dynasty finally won the Tripartite Struggle, he established Kannauj as the capital of the Pratiharas.

The Tripartite Struggle (790-1162 AD) was a power struggle among the Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala empires to control over Northern India, specially Kannauj.

The Pratiharas of Western India, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan plateau were the key parties involved in the tripartite struggle, fought over the Gangetic plains specially Kannauj.

The Tripartite Struggle began around 790 AD with a clash between Pala king Dharmapala and Pratihara king Vatsaraja at Prayaga, leading to Dharmapala’s defeat.

Nagabhata II of the Pratihara dynasty finally won the Tripartite Struggle, he established Kannauj as the capital of the Pratiharas.

Explore additional significant articles on Medieval Indian History listed in the table below:

The Chola Empire	The Rajput States
Evaluation of Rajput States	Regional Powers In South India and Deccan
Delhi Sultanate	Socio Cultural Impact of the Delhi Sultanate
The Vijayanagar Empire	Bahamani Kingdom
The Bhakti Movement	Bhakti Movement In North
The Advent of the Portuguese	The Mughal Empire
Economic and Cultural Impact of the Mughal Empire	The Decline of the Mughal Empire
Maratha Empire	Modern India

• • Administrative Units: Rashtrakutas followed an administrative system similar to the Guptas; however, there were a few differences.
    • • The empire was divided into administrative units known as Rashtra, which the Rashtrapati directly ruled.
    • • Rashtra was further divided into vishayas (districts), which were governed by vishayapatis. 
    • • The Visayas were further subdivided into Bhuktis. It consisted of around 50 villages, which were controlled by bhogapatis. 

• • Feudal Setup: 
    • • All the officials were paid by giving them rent-free land grants. 
    • • This blurred the distinction between local officials, the hereditary chiefs, and smaller vessels. 
    • • Similarly, the Rashtrapati or governor sometimes enjoyed the status and title of a vassal king.

• • Centralised control: The central government directly appointed these officers.
    • • The Visaya was like a modern district; the smaller unit was the bhukti. In the Pala and pratihara empires, it was called Pattala. The specific role of these smaller units is unknown.
    • • Each Bhukti was made up of several villages.

• • The Rashtrapati had both civil and military authority over the Rashtra.
    • • He performed the same functions as the Uparika did in the Pala and pratihara empires. 
    • • He was in charge of tax collection, law and order maintenance, keeping accounting records etc. 
    • • They sometimes took the title ‘Raja’, which represents the feudal system.

• • The Village administration was carried out by village chiefs and accountants, whose posts generally became hereditary.
    • • Generally, they were paid by grants of rent-free Land.
    • • The popular representative council played an important role in village administration. The councils had representatives from each household.
    • • The village chief was helped in his duties by Gramamahattara (a group of village elders)

Art and Architecture During Tripartite Struggle  

Sculptural style: 

• • Pratiharas and Palas developed a distinctive sculptural style in this period.

• • The Pratihara sculptures often use Sandstone, whereas Palas often used Black Basalt.

• • The sculptures of this time often form a part of the temple structure but can also be standalone.

• • The Pala-style sculptures are often polished.

Temples:

• • Pratihara-style Temples were a more developed form of Nagara Style temples. 

• • In later times, it developed into the Maru-Gurjara style of Architecture.

• • For example:
    • • Nagabhatta II built the famed Somnath temple in Gujarat. 
    • • Mihirbhoja built the Teli ka Mandir in the Gwalior fort. 

• • Pala Style of Architecture: At this time, a new style of architecture developed in Bengal, with a distinctive “Bangla dome”. These temples were generally constructed of Terracotta.

• • Vesara Style of Architecture: A distinct Vesara Style of architecture was developed under Rashtrakutas. The Kailash temple at Ellora is its most famous example. Krishna I (756 – 774AD) built the rock-cut Kailash temple at Ellora.

Development of regional Languages during Tripartite Struggle

1. Kannada: Amoghvarsha is credited with great contributions to the development of the Kannada language.

• Amoghvarsha wrote Kavirajmarga, considered the 1^st ever book in Kannada. It is the earliest available work on rhetoric, poetics, and grammar in the Kannada language.
• He patronised Indian mathematician Mahaviracharya, who wrote Ganita-Sara-samgraha and Digambar Jains monks Jinasena and Virasena.

2. Bengali: The Proto-Bengali language developed under the Pala rule. Early Bengali literature was divided into two categories:

1. Indebted to Sanskrit, and
2. Independent of it.

• Apabhramsha: The greatest Apabhramsha poet, Svayambhu, lived in the Rashtrakuta court.

3. Sanskrit:  The great Sanskrit poet and dramatist Rajashekhara, whose works include Karampuramanjari, Bala Ramayana, Kavyamimansa and Bhuvankosh, lived in the court of  Mahipal/Mahendrapala of Gurjara-Pratihara empire.

Sources of History of Tripartite Struggle:

• • Ellora Record of Dantidurga and Samangarh inscription tells about the Rasthrakuta history.

• • The Navsari Grant tells about the Rashtrakuta history before 753CE.

• • Badal Inscription tells that the Pala ruler Devapala(810-840CE) eradicated the race of the Utkalas, humbled Hunas and scattered the pride of the Dravida and Pratiharas.”

• • Mihir Bhoja is celebrated in the inscriptions such as Gwalior Prashasti and Barah copper plate. 

• • Kalhana’s Rajatarangini states that the territories of Mihir Bhoja extended to Kashmir in the north.

• • Arabian traveller Al-Masaudi came to Gujarat during Pratihara King Mahendrapala’s reign (885-910CE)  and called the kingdom Al-Juzr and king Baura.

• • Sanjan Copper Plate inscriptions note the reign of Amoghavarsha.

Conclusion

At the end of the Tripartite Struggle, Pratiharas emerged victorious and established themselves as the rulers of central India. However, this two-century-long great power struggle weakened all three dynasties. This resulted in political disintegration in the country and benefited the Islamic invaders such as Ghazni.

FAQ’s Related to Tripartite Struggle

What is meant by tripartite struggle?

The Tripartite Struggle (790-1162 AD) was a power struggle among the Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala empires to control over Northern India, specially Kannauj.

Who were the parties involved in the tripartite struggle?

The Pratiharas of Western India, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan plateau were the key parties involved in the tripartite struggle, fought over the Gangetic plains specially Kannauj.

Who started tripartite struggle?

The Tripartite Struggle began around 790 AD with a clash between Pala king Dharmapala and Pratihara king Vatsaraja at Prayaga, leading to Dharmapala’s defeat.

Which king won the tripartite struggle?

Nagabhata II of the Pratihara dynasty finally won the Tripartite Struggle, he established Kannauj as the capital of the Pratiharas.

The Tripartite Struggle (790-1162 AD) was a power struggle among the Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala empires to control over Northern India, specially Kannauj.

The Pratiharas of Western India, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan plateau were the key parties involved in the tripartite struggle, fought over the Gangetic plains specially Kannauj.

The Tripartite Struggle began around 790 AD with a clash between Pala king Dharmapala and Pratihara king Vatsaraja at Prayaga, leading to Dharmapala’s defeat.

Nagabhata II of the Pratihara dynasty finally won the Tripartite Struggle, he established Kannauj as the capital of the Pratiharas.

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