Partition of India: Summary, Cause, and Impact- Complete Notes for UPSC

In July 1946, the Muslim League withdrew from accepting the Cabinet mission plan in response to Nehru’s statement and called for “direct action” on 16 August to achieve its goals for Pakistan. In this chapter, we will discuss the emergence of communalism and its culmination with the partition of India and the formation of Pakistan.

What is communalism?

Communalism is an idea or belief that all those who share a common religion also have similar social, cultural, political, and economic identities and interests. In other words, it is the notion that religion serves as the base of society and a basic unit of division in society.

Communalism in India has evolved through three broad stages.

1. Communal Nationalism: The interests of all religious community members were the same; for example, it was argued that a Hindu Zamindar and a peasant had common interests because both were Hindus.
2. Liberal Communalism: If two communities have different religious interests, their interests will also differ in the secular sphere (economic and political).
3. Extreme Communalism: As per this notion, not only do interests differ, but they are also antagonistic and conflicting. It meant that Hindus and Muslims could not co-exist peacefully. The two-nation theory was based on this notion.

Factors contributing to the growth of communalism in India

Communal trends increased with the British policies in India. To maintain their rule, they adopted a divide-and-rule policy that wedged the divide between Hindus and Muslims. The following factors led to the growth of communalism in India:

Socio-economic factors:

• British imperial rule brought about significant changes in the power structure of Indian society. It resulted in the decline in the power of the upper-class Muslims, particularly in Bengal, where they lost their semi-monopoly status in employment in the upper positions of army, administration and judiciary. Soon, they were also evicted from their dominant land-holding.
• Compared to Hindus, Muslims were lagging in adopting English education, new professions and posts in the administration.
• There was a lack of industrial development, causing acute unemployment and cutthroat competition for existing jobs.
• These circumstances led to a feeling of insecurity among the Muslims.

British policies

• British policies were one of India’s biggest factors in the growth of communalism. However, it must be noted that the British did not create communalism; they took advantage of the existing socio-economic and cultural differences to serve their political ends.
• Initially, the British saw Muslims with suspicion, particularly after the revolt of 1857 and 1857 revolts and were subjected to discrimination and repression. However, after the emergence of Indian nationalism, the government reversed its policy and tried to rally the Muslims behind it through concessions and reservations (Bengal partition, separate electorate, etc.).
• Imperialist historians also played their part by interpreting history through the communal lens. They portrayed the mediaeval period as Muslim and the ancient period as Hindu.

Socio-religious Movements

• Muslim revivalist movements like the Wahabi and Deobandi Movement and the Shuddhi movement by Arya Samaj had communal overtones, which also played a role in the growth of communalism.

National Movement

• Initially, the Congress did not take up socio-religious questions in its forums, but after the advent of militant nationalism, religious symbols such as Tilak’s Ganapati and Shivaji festivals, anti-cow slaughter campaigns, invocation of Gods and Goddesses in oaths etc., began to be used which created suspicion among the minorities.
• Lucknow Pact and Khilafat agitations provided legitimacy and encouragement to the communal elements.

Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory

The nation theory is a religious-nationalist ideology that justifies India’s partition on the grounds that Indian Hindus and Indian Muslims are two separate nations with their own customs and traditions. This theory was initially propounded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and later promoted by Mohammad Ali Jinnah.

The development of the two-nation theory progressed as follows:

• 1887: Syed Ahmed Khan, believing that Muslims’ share in administrative posts and in the profession could be increased only by showing loyalty towards the British, decided to oppose the national movement under the Indian National Congress.
• 1906: In 1906, Muslim leader Aga Khan led a Muslim delegation (Shimla delegation) to the Viceroy, Lord Minto, to demand a separate electorate. The same year, the Muslim League was founded by the Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dacca, and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk to raise the slogan of separate Muslim interests and keep the Muslim intellectuals away from the Congress.
• 1909: A separate electorate was awarded to Muslims under the Morley-Minto reforms.
• 1915: Formation of All India Hindu Mahasabha by the Maharaja of Kasim Bazar to advocate the interests of orthodox Hindus.
• 1916: Under the Lucknow Pact, the Congress accepted a separate electorate for Muslims. The pact gave political legitimacy to the existence of the Muslim League.
• 1920-22: Even though the Khilafat-Non-cooperation movement witnessed Hindu-Muslim unity, the agitation is said to have further communalised the national movement.
• 1920s: This period saw the growth of communalism not just in the political sphere but also at the societal level. The Arya Samajists started the Shuddhi (Purification) Movement to reconvert those who had converted to Islam. In retaliation, the Muslims organised the Tablighi movement. The leaders of the national movement were also divided into communal movements, and many of them joined the Hindu Mahasabha. The Ali brothers, one of the leaders of the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation movement, accused the Congress of protecting only Hindu interests.
• 1925: Formation of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh with a focus on Hindu Rennaisance and revitalisation of the Indian value system.
• 1928: The Nehru report on constitutional reforms was opposed by the Muslim hardliners and Sikh League. Jinnah proposed 14 points, in which he demanded a separate electorate and reservations in government services for Muslims.
• 1930-34: Except for Jamaat-i-ulema-i-Hind, the state of Kashmir and Khudai Khidmatgar, the overall participation of Muslims in the Civil Disobedience Movement was very low as compared to the Khilafat agitations. While the Congress stayed away from the round table conferences, the communalists attended all of them.
• 1932: The British government bolstered the Muslim communalists by announcing the communal award, which accepted almost all the demands put forward by Jinnah’s 14 points.

Post-1937:

• After the poor performance in the 1937 provincial elections, the League decided to resort to extreme communalism, and it also began to acquire a mass character.
• Now, instead of projecting Muslims as minorities, the Muslim communalists started to project them as separate nations.
• The idea of Muslims as a separate nation was developed in the early 1930s by Muslim intellectuals like Rahmat Ali and Poet Muhammad Iqbal.
• In response, Hindu nationalist organisations like RSS and Hindu Mahasabha also adopted strong positions.
• The Muslim League started a strong campaign against the Congress ministries. It also demanded that the Congress should declare itself as a representative of Hindus only.