Cereals

Food Grain

A grain is a small, hard, dry fruit – with or without an attached hull layer – harvested for human or animal consumption. Cereals, the food grains, occupy 2/3rd of the total cropped area. These are the most dominant crops in every part of the country.

Based on the structure of grains, classified as:

1. Cereals (Fine Grains as well as Millets)
2. Pulses or Legumes

In this chapter, we will cover Cereals in detail.

Cereals

Cereal is a grass (Gramineae family) cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world’s largest crops and are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize.

Cereals cover 54% of India’s cropped area; 11% of the world and rank 3^rd in production after China and the US.

Cereals are classified as:

1. Fine grains: Rice, Wheat.
2. Millets: Coarse grains: Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Ragi etc.

Fine Grains

Those cereals with small seed sizes are known as fine grains. Rice and Wheat main fine-grain cereals that are grown in India.

Crop	Conditions	States in India	India’s Position
Rice: Around 3000 varieties are grown around the world. It is the Staple food of the majority of the world.	Tropical humid areas. Varieties from Sea level to 2000m. 25OC Temperature, 100+cm rainfall. 130 days. Kharif crop in most of India Alluvial clay.	5 leading States: Bengal, UP, Andhra, Punjab, and Tamil Nadu West Bengal: 3 crops of ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’. Southern states: 2-3 times a year. After the Green Revolution in Irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western UP, and north Rajasthan, with HYV seeds. Also grown in Humid areas in Eastern India. Yield highest: Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Andhra, Bengal and Kerala. (all 4 states are fully irrigated, except Kerala).	India produces 22% of rice, 2nd after China (30%); India: Largest exporter. China: largest importer. 1/4th area cropped is under rice in India
Wheat: 2nd most important.	Temperate zone crop – Moderate Temperature, Moderate rain (50-75cm evenly distributed) Rabi Season: winter crop. Takes 140 days Harvest: bright sunshine. Well-drained loamy (sand + clay).	1. Indo-Gangetic plain 85% of the area in the North, covering UP, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and MP – 5 leading states. Yield: highest in Punjab and Haryana Moderate in UP, Raj and Bihar. Mostly grows in irrigated areas. 2. Himalayas up to 2700m altitude. It’s a Rainfed crop in Himachal and J&K. 3. Parts of Malwa plateau (MP).	India produces 12% of total wheat 14% of total area. States: UP, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and MP – 5 leaders.

Rice

Rice is the world’s most consumed cereal, feeding over half the global population, with India and China being the top producers. India is its 2^nd largest producer but the largest exporter.

• Export:In FY 23-24, India exported 16.5 million metric tons of rice to the world, accounting for 33% of world exports (40% in 2022). We export two types of rice:
  • Basmati rice: 95% of Basmati rice is exported. It is exported mainly to the US, the UK, and the Gulf countries.
  • Non-Basmati Rice: India limits its exports. Currently, there is a minimum export price of $490/tonne. These are exported mainly to China and South-East Asian countries.
• Nutritional Value:Rice provides essential carbohydrates for energy. It is poor in protein, vitamins, and mineral content. Though fortification can enhance its nutritional value.
• Cultural Significance:Rice is deeply woven into the cultural fabric of Eastern states of India, featuring in festivals, traditions, and culinary delights.

Challenges of Rice Cultivation:

• Water Scarcity:Rice cultivation demands significant water, posing challenges in arid regions and with climate change.
• Soil Degradation:Intensive farming practices can deplete soil nutrients, requiring sustainable solutions.
• Pest and Diseases:Rice faces various threats from pests and diseases, impacting yields and farmer livelihoods.

Wheat

Wheat, a member of the grass family, is the king of cereals, feeding a significant portion of the world’s population. It is also known as the Golden Grain.

• Second-largest cereal produced globally, feeding billions.
• Versatile Staple:Bread, pasta, noodles, pastries, and more – wheat fuels diverse cuisines.
• Nutritional Value:
  • Carbohydrates for energy: Main source of energy for many populations.
  • Protein and fibre:Provides essential nutrients for a balanced diet.
  • Vitamins and minerals:Iron, zinc, and B vitamins contribute to overall health.

Challenges of Wheat Cultivation:

• Resource intensive:Requires significant water and fertilizers, raising sustainability concerns.
• Climate vulnerability:Sensitive to droughts, heatwaves, and other extreme weather events.
• Monoculture risks: Dependence on limited varieties increases pest and disease susceptibility.

Wheat remains a vital crop for global food security and diverse diets. Addressing challenges and adopting sustainable practices are crucial for its future.

‘Green Revolution’

The Green Revolution was a period of significant agricultural growth in the mid-20th century, largely driven by the introduction of high-yielding varieties of cereal crops (primarily wheat and rice) and the widespread adoption of modern agricultural practices.

History of the Green Revolution

In May 1962, M. S. Swaminathan, a member of IARI’s wheat program, requested Dr. B. P. Pal, director of IARI, to arrange for the visit of Norman Borlaug to India and to obtain a wide range of dwarf wheat seeds possessing the Norin 10 dwarfing genes. This slowly resulted in an explosion in production. This led to the highest increase in Food grains in the 80s decade.

Aspects of India’s Green Revolution:

1. Introduced High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds in Indian agriculture, first for Wheat and then for rice and other crops. It was more successful for wheat.
2. It required rich irrigation facilities: Monsoon could hardly be relied upon by farmers. As a result, India’s agricultural irrigation systems have been enhanced by the Green Revolution.
3. The Green Revolution boosted the availability and use of herbicides, weedicides, and fertilizers to minimize crop damage and loss and to raise farm productivity.
4. Mechanisation contributed to the nation’s commercial farming industry by introducing technology and equipment such as tractors, drills, harvesters, and other equipment.

Geographical spread of the Green Revolution

The increase in food grains was disproportionate. The highest rate was achieved in well-irrigated areas of Punjab & Haryana, where food grain production jumped from 7.23Mn in 64-65 to an all-time high of 30.33Mn in 95-96.

Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh also recorded a significant increase in rice yield. Production in Maharashtra, MP, Bihar, Odisha & N-E states continued to stagger.

1. First Phase: It focused on states with better infrastructure, such as Tamil Nadu and Punjab.
2. Second Phase:
   1. HYV seeds were given to other states, and
   2. Crops other than wheat were also included in the plan.

Other Factors responsible for the success of the Green Revolution

1. Price Guarantees:Minimum support prices (MSP) incentivized farmers to adopt the new technology and assured them of better profits. This produce was utilised in the PDS system ensuring food security in India.
2. Subsidies:Subsidies on fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation infrastructure made these inputs more affordable for farmers, facilitating wider adoption.
3. Extension Services:Government extension agents provided training and technical assistance to farmers on HYVs, fertilizer use, and pest control practices.
4. Land Reforms:In some countries, land reform programs redistributed landholdings, granting larger farms to efficient cultivators who could better utilize improved technologies.
5. Improved Markets:Improved Mandi infrastructure and transportation increased market access for farmers, allowing them to sell their produce more effectively.

Impacts of the Green Revolution in India

1. Agricultural Production Enhanced: The Wheat Grain was the revolution’s greatest benefit. In the early phases of the plan itself, production rose to 55 million tonnes.
2. Increased the per hectare yield: from 850 kg per hectare to an astounding 2281 kg/ha in its early stages in the case of wheat.
3. Self–sufficiency: The nation’s output was adequate to meet both the growing population’s demand and its emergency supplies. India started exporting its agricultural produce.
4. The rise in rural employment: The tertiary industries such as transportation, irrigation, food processing, marketing, etc created employment opportunities for the workforce. [Contrary to the fear that farm mechanization would take away the jobs]
5. Farm income increased: which enabled them to shift from sustenance farming to commercial farming.

Limitations of Green Revolution in India

While the Green Revolution in India revolutionized food production, it also brought a range of negative impacts:

Environmental Impact:

• Soil degradation:Increased fertilizer use depleted essential nutrients and harmed soil structure.
• Water depletion:Extensive irrigation strained water resources, leading to groundwater declines and environmental stress.
• Pollution:Unbalanced use of Chemical pesticides and fertilizers has polluted water bodies and harmed biodiversity.
• Pesticide exposure:Increased pesticide use posed health risks to farmers and consumers through residue in food and water.

Social and Economic:

• Increased debt:Reliance on expensive inputs like HYVs and fertilizers trapped farmers in debt cycles.
• Farmer marginalization:Small farms struggled to compete with larger, mechanized farms, leading to land consolidation and marginalization.
• Rural inequalities:Benefits are largely concentrated in certain regions and among wealthier farmers, exacerbating existing inequalities.
• Shrinking farm size

Sustainability:

• High input cost: Unsustainable for many farmers. Failure to adopt new technologies.
• Monoculture risks:Dependence on limited crop varieties increased vulnerability to pests and diseases.
• Lower Natural Productivity:Intensive practices threatened long-term soil fertility and resilience, jeopardizing future agricultural productivity.
• Over-reliance on 2 crops: If a communicable disease impacts either wheat or rice, the food security in India would be Jeopardised.
• Commercial crops and cash crops such as cotton, jute, oilseeds, etc were not a part of the plan. The Green Revolution in India mainly emphasized food grains such as wheat and rice.
• Limited geographical reach: In areas with better technology capital and irrigation. Green Revolution has practically failed in the areas with inadequate Irrigation cover.

Krishonnati Yojana

“Green Revolution – Krishonnati Yojana” is an Umbrella Scheme in the agriculture sector.

• Implemented since 2016-17 by re-clubbing 11 schemes/missions under one umbrella scheme.
• These schemes look to develop the agriculture and allied sectors in a holistic and scientific manner to increase farmers’ incomes by enhancing production and productivity and achieving better returns on produce.

Schemes / Missions currently covered under Green Revolution.

1. Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH): To promote holistic growth of the horticulture sector to enhance horticulture production and improve nutritional security and income support to farm Households.
2. National Food Security Mission (NFSM): Launched in 2007-08 to increase the production of rice, wheat, pulses, coarse cereals and commercial crops through
   • Area expansion and productivity enhancement,
   • Restoring soil fertility and productivity,
   • Creating employment opportunities and
   • Enhancing farm-level economy.

Sub-Mission: National Mission on Oil Seeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP): to augment the availability of vegetable oils and to reduce the import of edible oils.

3. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): to promote sustainable agriculture practices best suitable to the specific agroecology focusing on integrated farming, appropriate soil health management and synergizing resource conservation technology.
4. Sub-Mission on Agriculture Extension (SMAE):
   • An agricultural extension service provides technical aid to farmers on any agricultural issues. It works to supply them with the essential inputs and services that support and increase their agricultural production.
   • Strengthen the ongoing extension mechanism of state governments, local bodies, etc.
   • Institutionalize programme planning and implementation mechanisms
   • To forge effective linkages and synergy amongst various stakeholders, to support HRD interventions, to promote pervasive and innovative use of electronic / print media, interpersonal communication, ICT tools, etc.
5. Sub-Mission on Seeds and Planting Material (SMSP):
   • To increase the production of certified/quality seed,
   • To increase the seed replacement ratio (SSR)
   • To upgrade the quality of farm-saved seeds,
   • To strengthen the seed multiplication chain,
   • To promote new technologies and methodologies in seed production, processing, testing, etc.
   • To strengthen and modernise infrastructure for seed production, storage, certification and quality, etc.
6. Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanisation (SMAM): SMAM aims to:
   • Increase the reach of farm mechanization to small and marginal farmers and to the regions where the availability of farm power is low,
   • promote ‘Custom Hiring Centres’ to offset the adverse economies of scale,
   • Create hubs for hi-tech and high-value farm equipment,
   • Create awareness among stakeholders through demonstration and capacity-building activities,
   • Ensure performance testing & certification at designated testing centres.
7. Sub Mission on Plant Protection and Plan Quarantine (SMPPQ):
   • To minimize loss to quality and yield of crops from the ravages of insect pests, diseases, weeds, nematodes, rodents, etc.
   • To shield our agricultural bio-security from the incursions and spread of alien species,
   • Better plant protection strategies: to promote good agricultural practices.
8. Integrated Scheme on Agriculture Census, Economics and Statistics (ISACES): to undertake
   • Agriculture census: study of the cost of cultivation of principal crops,
   • Research studies on agro-economic problems of the country,
   • Fund conferences/workshops and seminars involving eminent economists, agricultural scientists, and experts and bring out papers to conduct short-term studies,
   • Improving agricultural statistics methodology and
   • Creating a hierarchical information system on crop condition and crop production from sowing to harvest.
9. Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Cooperation (ISAC):
   • Provides financial assistance for improving the economic conditions of cooperatives,
   • Remove regional imbalances and speed up – cooperative development in agricultural marketing, processing, storage, computerization and weaker section programs;
   • Help cotton growers fetch remunerative prices for their produce through value addition, besides ensuring the supply of quality yarn at reasonable rates to the decentralized weavers.
10. Integrated Scheme on Agricultural Marketing (ISAM):
    • Develop agricultural marketing infrastructure;
    • Promote innovative and latest technologies and competitive alternatives in agriculture marketing infrastructure;
    • Provide infrastructure facilities for grading, standardization and quality certification of agricultural produce;
    • Establish a nationwide marketing information network;
    • Integrate markets through a common online market platform to facilitate pan-India trade in agricultural commodities, etc.
11. National e-Governance Plan (NeGP-A):
    • to enhance reach & impact of extension services;
    • to improve access of farmers to information & services throughout the crop cycle;
    • to integrate the existing ICT initiatives of the Centre and States

Issues with Rice and Wheat Cropping System

1. Water Problem: (Rice wheat sugarcane system)
   • Declining underground water table: More than 60% of irrigation water is consumed by rice and Sugarcane. 88% of pulses are produced in non-irrigated lands. Above this, just two crops—rice and sugar—account for more than 20% of India’s agri-export.
   • Sustainability of this growth rate.
   • Subsidy dependent: power and fertilizer subsidies account for 15% of its value in Punjab and Haryana.
   • Practically Exporting water: 1kg of Rice needs 4000 litres. This depletes the ground table.
   • High energy requirement: The decline of underground water levels results in submersible pumps replacing the centrifugal pump with more power.
2. Ecological Issues:
   • Groundwater pollution: Excessive use of fertilizers/insecticides
   • Diverse weed flora
   • Outbreak of disease and insect pest: Green crops with higher doses of N-fertilizers and wet conditions because of frequent irrigations are the paradise for the outbreak of insect pests and diseases.
3. Agricultural Issues:
   • Degrading soil structure and soil health: The microenvironment is unable to regenerate the fertility of the soil due to the repeated use of fertilisers. Further, excess irrigation enhances salinity.
   • Residue management: wheat residue is used in the animal husbandry sector, but the higher silica content in rice straw makes it inappropriate to be used in the dairy sector
4. Labour shortage: The rice-wheat cropping system is water-, energy-, capital- and, most importantly, labour intensive as transplanting, spraying and harvesting of paddy requires intense labour. The labour shortage is an emerging issue.
5. Climatic Issues
   • Environmental pollution: Management of the rice stubble is a major challenge.
   • Global warming: Flaming of farm residues generates ample amounts of greenhouse gases, aerosols, and other hydrocarbons in the atmosphere, affecting the atmospheric composition.

The Rice-wheat dominance thrives on high inputs, depleting soils and threatening water, but offers limited income diversity. This can trap farmers in a cycle of low profit, debt, and vulnerability to price fluctuations and climate shocks.

Advances in Rice-Wheat system

Upgrades for Paddy:

• Direct Seeding Method (DSR): (instead of transplantation of paddy) the pre-germinated seeds are directly drilled into the field by a tractor-powered machine, with no nursery preparation.
  • Saves water.
  • Transplantation is labour-intensive, and DSR cuts the labour costs.
  • The DSR crop matures 7-10 days faster than with transplantation.
  • Thus, farmers are not in a hurry to burn the stubble but rather opt for other ways of disposal.
• Flood Resistant varieties of Rice: Every year there is a huge loss to farmers of Assam as Paddy gets submerged in water. [Sub1: Submerged variety]
  • Ranjit Sub1: It was introduced in 2018 under the Assam Agribusiness and Rural Transformation Project (APART). “About 60% of the farmers in the West Brahmaputra area switch to the flood-tolerant paddy. Some 1,500 farmers cultivate on about 950 hectares in this area.”
  • Swarna Sub 1: For flood-prone areas of Assam; developed by the ICMR and the Manila-based International Rice Research Institute, since 2009.

“Pokalli” – saltwater resistant variety in coastal Alappuzha, Ernakulam and Thrissur districts of Kerala.

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