Fibre crop

Fibre crops provide us with fibre for preparing cloth, bags, sacks and several other nutrients. Even Jute can be used for coarse clothing.

Crop	Conditions	States in India	India’s Position
Cotton India grows both short-staple cotton and long-staple cotton – ‘Narma’	Kharif crop Semi-arid areas. High Temperature, Light rainfall – a total of 900mm Clear sky at the flowering stage: 210 frost-free days. Bright sunlight. 6-8 months to mature. Black/alluvial.	Acreage has increased in the last 50 years. 3 Regions: North: Punjab, Haryana and North Rajasthan (Alluvial Soil) West: Gujarat and Maharashtra (Black soil) South: Telangana, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Leading producers: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Telangana, Punjab and Haryana	China, India, the US, Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt India accounts for 23% of Cotton.
Jute (golden fibre)	Tropical Region High Temperature (more than 25oC) High Rainfall, Humid climate. Well drained – Alluvial soil.	0.5% of total area in India West Bengal accounts for 3/4th of India’s production. Other States: Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya.	India and Bangladesh. 3/5th of the Jute of the world is produced in India.
Silk (India is the only country producing all 5 known varieties of Silk)	The optimum temperature for normal growth of silkworms is between 20°C and 28°C. Desirable temperature for maximum productivity ranges from 23°C to 28°C. Mulberry being a deep-rooted perennial plant; can be raised in vacant lands, hill slopes etc.	Mulberry sericulture is practised in 0.1% of the Net Sown area. Major States: Karnataka, Andhra, Assam (Bodoland), West Bengal, Jharkhand and Tamil Nadu Oak Tasar: Assam	Mulberry Silk: China, Japan, India.

Cotton:

Cotton originated in India and is the most important fibre crop in the world. Although India is currently the 2^nd largest producer of Cotton in the world.

Cotton processing

Before its utilisation, cotton undergoes various types of processing:

• Ginning: Fibres are separated from seeds by combing.
• Separation of Substances: Handpicking, Threshing, Winnowing, Sieving; Cleaning can also be done through Sedimentation, Decantation (water along with dust removed), Filtration, Evaporation and condensation.
• Spinning: conversion of fibres to yarns. By Charkha or by spinning machine on a large scale.
• Weaving: Arranging yarns together to make fabric. By Handloom or Automatic looms.
  • Knitting: Single yarn used to make a piece of fabric. The yarn gets pulled continuously as the fabric gets unravelled.

Challenges in Cotton Production in India

1. Water Scarcity: Cotton is a water-intensive crop (requires water, particularly flowering and boll formation stages), and India faces significant water scarcity issues in many cotton-growing regions, especially in states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Telangana, where cotton is widely cultivated.
2. Rainfall dependency: Cotton is also highly dependent on rainfall. Irregular and erratic monsoons, especially in drought-prone regions, can lead to crop failures or reduced yields.
3. Pest and Disease Pressure: Cotton is susceptible to a wide range of pests and diseases that can severely impact yields. Some of the most common issues include:

• Cotton Bollworm: One of the most damaging pests for cotton, the bollworm destroys the bolls and flowers, reducing both the quantity and quality of the cotton produced.
• Whitefly and Pink Bollworm: These pests cause direct damage to cotton plants and also transmit viral diseases like the Cotton Leaf Curl Virus (CLCV).
• Fungal and Bacterial Diseases: Diseases like Fusarium wilt and Verticillium wilt can reduce plant health and yield.

1. 4. Soil Degradation and dependency on fertilisers: Repeated monoculture of cotton depletes essential soil nutrients, leading to reduced soil fertility and increased dependency on synthetic fertilizers.
   5. Low cotton yields: due to declining fertility of soil, water scarcity and substandard seeds. Hybrid cotton seeds, which offer better yields and pest resistance, are often expensive, making it difficult for small-scale farmers to afford them.
   6. Climate Change: cotton is sensitive to extreme temperature fluctuations. Rising temperatures, particularly during the flowering and boll formation stages, can lead to reduced yield and quality. Further, unpredictable weather, such as early or late monsoons, droughts, and unseasonal rains, can cause crop damage, delays in planting, and reduced harvests. Heavy rainfall and flooding too can harm the crop by stunting growth or causing root rot.
   7. High Input Costs: due to the reliance on external inputs like fertilizers and pesticides, as well as high seed costs. Moreover, with pesticide resistance developing among pests, the cost of chemicals continues to rise. Although the government sets a Minimum Support Price (MSP) for cotton, it is often inadequate to cover production costs.
   8. Price depression in the global market: After the introduction of synthetic fibres prices for natural fibres have been declining. Further, India faces competition from other major cotton producers like the US, China, and Brazil.
   9. Credit and Loans: Many cotton farmers struggle to access affordable credit. They often rely on local moneylenders who charge exorbitant interest rates, leading to a cycle of debt.

History of Bt Cotton:

• India persisted with hybrid varieties of cotton from 1980-2002, while other countries shifted to HDP (High-Density Planting).
• The Genetically modified pest-resistant Bt cotton hybrids (with the transgene – Bacillus thuringiensis) have captured the Indian market since their introduction in 2002. This strain stops many kinds of pest attacks improving the yield. These now cover over 95% of the area under cotton.

The positive impact of Bt Cotton:

1. Increased Productivity:
   1. Fewer Pest attacks – leading to higher yields
   2. Data available: cotton yields in the past 13 years have been stable.
2. Increased Production:
   1. Highest production ever: India’s cotton production in 2019 is projected as the highest ever: 354 lakh bales.
   2. India becoming the biggest producer: India is expected to be the world’s largest cotton producer, surpassing China in output.
3. Increased income
   1. Reduced level of insecticides and Pesticides There has been a reduction in insecticide use by volume and applications and a decline in environmental and human health impact associated with insecticide use.
   2. No requirement for an expensive Integrated pest management system (IPM)

Criticism of Bt cotton:

The hybrids have negatively impacted livelihoods and contributed to agrarian distress, particularly among resource-poor farmers.

1. Productivity:
   2015. Pests overcoming the Bt strain: Whitefly attack in 2015.
   2016. Increasing use of Pesticides: Yet over the past 13 years, pesticide use has gradually increased in Bt hybrids to control a different kind of pest-sucking pests.
   2017. Behind competition: It seems that an evaluation of the international experience was not done. India’s productivity (yield per unit area) has been only a third of other major cotton-producing countries for over four decades.
2. Production:
   1. The problem of Irrigation: Cotton is a dryland crop and 65% of the area under cotton in India is rain-fed. Farmers with insufficient access to groundwater in these areas are entirely dependent on rain.
3. Impact on Income:
   1. Labour intensive: Though hybrid cotton seed production is expensive, requiring manual crossing, India’s low cost of manual labour makes it economically viable.
   2. The monopoly of seed Industries: with the seeds produced entirely by the private sector, accompanied by withdrawal of public sector cotton seed production. Using hybrids gives pricing control to the seed company and also ensures a continuous market. The Seed industries have seemingly grown into a powerful lobby.
   3. Farmer distress: Agricultural distress is extremely high among cotton farmers and the combination of high input and high risk has likely been a contributing factor.

The problem of Hybrids:

India is the only country that grows cotton as hybrids and the first to develop hybrid cotton back in 1970.

• Mechanism of making Hybrids:
  • They are made by crossing two parent strains having different genetic characters manually.
  • International Experience: All other cotton-producing countries grow cotton not as hybrids but as varieties for which seeds are produced by self-fertilization.
  • Features: These plants have more biomass than both parents and the capacity for greater yields. They also require more inputs, including fertilizer and water.
  • The key difference between hybrids and varieties is that: Varieties can be propagated over successive generations by collecting seeds from one planting and using them for the next planting; hybrid seeds have to be remade for each planting by crossing the parents. Thus, for hybrids farmers must purchase seed for each planting, but not for varieties.
• Solution: A different strategy using high-density planting (HDP) of compact varieties has been found to outperform hybrids at the field level. Advantages of Compact varieties:
  • These are planted at high density (5 kg seeds/acre), whereas hybrids in India are bushy, long duration and planted at ten-fold lower density (0.5 kg seeds/acre). They have lower boll production (5-10 bolls per plant) compared to hybrids (20-100 bolls/plant), but it is more than compensated by the ten-fold greater planting density.
  • A shorter duration variety reduces dependence on irrigation and risk, particularly late in the growing season when soil moisture drops following the monsoon’s withdrawal when bolls develop and water requirement is the highest.
  • They have more than twice the productivity, and half the fertilizer (200 kg/ha for hybrids versus 100 kg/ha for varieties). They would have significantly reduced distress as well as increased yield.

Why these points were missed by the GEAC during the evaluation of Bt Cotton?

• Since the scope of evaluation by the GM regulatory process in India was narrow, this couldn’t be anticipated.
• The Evaluation process did not evaluate Bt cotton in comparison to other advances in the world.
• India is a signatory to international treaties on GMO regulations (CBD and Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety), which specifically provide for the inclusion of socioeconomic considerations in GMO risk assessment. However, socioeconomic and need-based considerations have not been a part of the GMO regulatory process in India.

Lessons: New technologies can have significant negative fallouts, especially in India with a high proportion being marginal and subsistence farmers. We must prioritise the needs of the principal stakeholders (farmers). There is a need for better consultation in policy, be it agriculture as a whole or crop-wise.

Jute

India holds the crown as the world’s largest producer of jute, and its cultivation plays a significant role in the country’s economy and rural livelihoods.  It is primarily grown in the eastern and northeastern states, including West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Andhra Pradesh.

• Ideal conditions:Thrives in warm, humid climates with moderate rainfall (around 2000-2500 mm) and thrives in well-drained, alluvial soils.
• Seasonality:Cultivated during the kharif season (monsoon season, June-September) due to its water requirements.

Varieties and Cultivation Practices:

• Two main varieties:Tossa jute (known for its fineness and strength) and White jute (known for its high yield).
• Traditional practices:Mostly small-scale farming with simple tools and techniques. Increasing integration of mechanization and sustainable practices like organic farming is observed.

Yield and Production:

• Average yield:Varies depending on region and practices, but ranges from 15-20 quintals/hectare.
• Total production:Estimated at around 10.58 million bales (180 kg each) in 2020-21.
• Challenges:Fluctuations in yield due to weather, pest infestation, and competition from synthetic fibres.

Importance of Jute:

• Economic significance:Provides livelihood for millions of farmers, particularly small and marginal ones.
• Environmentally friendly:Biodegradable and renewable resource, promoting sustainability.
• Versatility:Used in various products like packaging bags, mats, carpets, and even textiles.

Jute Industry:

India is 2^nd largest producer of Jute Textiles after Bangladesh. 70 Jute mills in India(mostly WB along the bank of Hugli in a narrow belt of 98km X 3km).

• Inexpensive water transport, support of rail, road & waterways to facilitate movement of raw material to mills, abundant water for processing raw jute, chap labour from WB & adjoining states of Bihar, Odisha and UP. Kolkata is a large urban centre to provides banking, insurance and port facilities.
• It supports 2.61 Lakh workers and 40 Lakh small and marginal farmers who are engaged in the cultivation of jute & mesta.

Challenges:

• Stiff competition from the international market,
• Synthetic substitute from Bangladesh, Brazil, Philippines, Egypt & Thailand.
• Tumbling internal demand due to unattractive final product.
• Lack of effective Marketing Mechanisms.

Opportunities:

• Growing global concerns for environment-friendly, biodegradable materials, have opened the opportunity for jute products.
• Main Market: US, Canada, Russia, UAR, UK & Australia.
• Handicraft
• Use in the Construction Industry for curing purposes.

Government Initiatives:

• Mandatory Jute packing: to boost Internal Demand.
  • The government sector purchases jute bags of more than Rs. 7,500 cr/year for packing food grains.
  • CCEA has approved that100% of the food grains and 20% of the sugar shall be mandatorily packed in diversified jute bags.
  • Jute Packaging Materials Act, 1987: The government is required to provide for compulsory use of jute packaging material in the supply and distribution of certain commodities in the interest of production of raw jute and jute packaging material.
• National Jute Policy, 2005:
  • Objective: increasing productivity, improving quality, ensuring good prices to jute farmers and enhancing yield per hectare.
• Jute ICARE initiative: The government has been supporting close to approx. 2 lakh jute farmers by disseminating improved agronomic practices such as:
  • Line sowing using seed drills,
  • Weed management by using wheel-hoeing and nail-weeders,
  • Distribution of quality certified seeds and
  • Providing microbial-assisted retting (the process of separating the fibre from the stem).
  • These interventions have resulted in enhancing the quality and productivity of raw jute and increasing the income of jute farmers by Rs. 10,000 per hectare.
• Jute SMART, an e-govt initiative was launched in December 2016, providing an integrated platform for procurement of B-Twill sacking by Government agencies.
• Use Certified Seeds: Jute Corporation of India has entered into an MoU with National Seeds Corporation for the distribution of 10,000 quintals of certified seeds on a commercial basis.

Way Forward:

• Focus on value addition:Exploring new applications and diversifying product range to increase demand.
• Sustainable practices:Promoting organic farming and improving resource efficiency.
• Government initiatives:Continued support for farmers and promoting jute in domestic and international markets.

Jute cultivation supports the livelihood of millions of farmers. By addressing challenges and exploring innovative opportunities, this golden fibre can continue to shine brightly in the future. A high tax on synthetic materials due to their non-biodegradability and polluting nature can be one such step.

Silk

Sericulture or Silkworm rearing is a very old occupation in India.

Silk Production

• Silk moth lays 100s of eggs, from which hatch larvae, called caterpillars or silkworms. They grow in size, it weave a net to hold themselves. Swings its head from side to side in a process in which it secrets a fibre made of protein. When exposed to air, it hardens and turns into Pupa. This covering is known as Cocoon.
• There are a variety of silk moths that look different from each other and yield different textures (coarse, smooth, shiny etc): Tassar silk, mooga silk, Kosa silk etc. The most common moth is the Mulberry silk moth (silk is soft lustrous & elastic).
• Rearing: Eggs stored in strips of cloth or paper & sold to silkworm farmers. Kept hygienic conditions, under suitable conditions of temperature & humidity. Made to hatch by providing suitable temperature when Mulberry trees bear fresh crops of leaves. Larve is kept in clean bamboo trays along with freshly chopped mulberry After 25-30, stop eating and spin cocoons, inside which develops a silk moth.
• Processing: Cocoons kept under the sun or boiled or exposed to steam. Silk fibre separates. The process of taking out thread = reeling of silk.

Mulberry Silk:

• As a perennial crop with good foliage and root spread, mulberry contributes to soil conservation and provides green cover.
• Waste from silkworm rearing can be recycled as inputs to the garden.
• Dried mulberry twigs and branches are used as fuel in place of firewood and therefore reduce the pressure on vegetation/forest.
• Being a labour-intensive and predominantly agro-based activity, the involvement of smoke-emitting machinery is minimal.
• Developmental programmes initiated for mulberry plantations are mainly in upland areas where unused cultivable land is made productive.
• Mulberry can also be cultivated as an intercrop with numerous plantations.

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