Chola Dynasty

The Chola Dynasty is one of the longest-ruling families in the history of the world. It rose in the Sangam Age as one of the three kingdoms alongside Cheras and Pandyas. However, very little is known about the Cholas after the end of the Sangam age till the mid-9th century.

The Origin of Chola Dynasty

- The Chola dynasty can be studied under the Sangam Chola (200BCE to 300CE), the Imperial Chola (850-1070CE) and the Later Chola headings.

- The earliest references to the Chola are from inscriptions of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire dated the 3^rd century BCE during the Sangam Period, along with the Chera and Pandya. Despite these ancient origins, the Chola remained feudatories of the Pallavas and the Pandyas for most of history.

- However, in the mid-9th century CE, the “Chola Empire” rose to prominence under a series of able leaders and eventually became one of the most powerful empires in the world.

- The Imperial and the Later Cholas continued to reign over different territories until the 13th century CE.

The Imperial Chola Dynasty(850-1070CE)

The Imperial Chola dynasty was established with the accession of Vijayalaya in 850 CE. The important rulers of this dynasty are as follows:

1. Vijayalaya (850-871CE)

Vijayalaya was the founder of Chola dynasty. He was initially a feudatory of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in 850AD and made it his capital, starting the Imperial Chola rule. He also founded the temple of Nishumbhasudini.

2. Aditya I (871–907CE)

Aditya-I defeated the Pandyas of Madurai in 885AD and ended the Pallava dynasty by killing its last ruler Aparajit Varman 897CE. He occupied large parts of the Kannada country and established marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty. He had friendly ties with the Chera dynasty.

3. Parantaka I (907-955CE)

Parantaka conquered Sri Lanka (known as Ilangai) and once defeated even the powerful Rashtrakutas. His influence includes the whole Tamil country up to Nellore in Andhra Pradesh.

Battles against Rashtrakutas:

In the Battle of Vallala 916 – the Rashtrakuta dynasty under Krishna II was defeated.
In the Battle of Takkolam, 949 – Rashtrakuta king Krishna III (939-967CE) defeated his son Rajaditya Chola’s armies near Vellore, according to the Karhad copper plates.

After these battle, Cholas were virtually wiped out. From the death of Parantaka to the accession of Rajaraja I in 985AD, Chola’s history is obscure.

He built Natraj Temple at Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu.
The Uttarameruru inscription issued by Prantaka gives details of the election in local administration.

4. Uttama Chola (973-985CE)

Uttama Chola is credited with improving the Chola army. He provided each infantryman with a waistcoat, regardless of rank and caste. This made their army very efficient.

5. Rajaraja Chola (985–1014CE):

Rajaraja, born with the name Arulmozhi Varman, is often described as Raja Raja the Great.

Rajaraja’s sculpture at Brihadeshwara Temple

Administrative Reforms under Rajaraja:

- He surveyed the countryside and reorganised them into Velanadu.

- Direct control: Local hereditary lords were replaced by officials appointed by the Imperial cholas.

- He placed a system of audit and control.

The expansionist policy of Rajaraja:

- Rajaraja Chola Ruler destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum and attacked Kollam. He also subjugated the Pandyas.

- Defeated Mahindra V of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), destroyed Anuradhapura (capital of Ceylon) and established the Chola province in north Ceylon with Polonnaruva as its capital.

- He encouraged Sri Maravijayottunggavarman, a king of the Srivijaya Kingdom (Sumatra, Indonesia) of the Sailendra dynasty, to build a Buddhist monastery. It was named Chundamuni Vihara.

- At Tanjore, he also constructed a Shiva Brihadeshvara temple (also called Rajarajeshvara temple).

Chola Dynastyt Map During Rajaraja Chola (Chola Dynasty Upsc Notes)

6. Rajendra Chola (1014-1044AD):

He carried forward the annexationist policy of his father.

Expansion of Chola Dynasty during Rahendra Chola in India

Rajendra Chola completely overrun the Pandya and the Chera empires and completed the conquest of Sri Lanka by 1018.

Expansion of control in the Bay of Bengal – Creating the “Chola Lake”.

- He captured the islands of Laccadives and the Maldives, which he renamed Munnir Palantivu Pannirayiram, meaning “Twelve Thousand Islands and the Ocean Where Three Waters Meet.”

- He undertook the conquest of the Sri Vijaya empire to curb piracy around the trading midpoints, such as in Cambodia. He was helped by the Khmer emperor Suryavarman I (of Cambodia) in this raid.

- Khmers and Cholas were Shaivites, which could have played a minor role in their alliance. However, the Cholas themselves benefitted from Piracy and Trade, and thus this raid was mainly motivated from an economic standpoint.

- With this raid, the Chola navy became the most vital force in the Bay of Bengal, which was effectively converted into a Chola Lake.

Rajendra’s Influence:

- The Cholas controlled greater parts of peninsular India’s western and eastern coasts.

- He traded with Southeast Asia, China and the Arab through sea routes. He also sent diplomatic missions to China in 1016, 1033.
- Rajendra was followed by a series of weak successors who faced revolts in Sri Lanka and rebellion by feudatories like Chalukyas of Vengi.
- Eventually, some control was regained by the Later Cholas.

Rajendra Chola Map

The Later Cholas (1070-1279AD)

The Later Chola dynasty ruled the Chola Empire from 1070AD until the end of the empire in 1279AD. This dynasty was the product of decades of alliances based on marriages between the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas in Vengi. Hence, they are often referred to as Chalukya Cholas.

Chola Dynasty Map During Kulothunga- Chola Dynasty Upsc Notes

1. Kulothunga I (1070–1122CE)

Kulothunga-I united the Vengi kingdom (Eastern Chalukyas) with the Chola kingdom.

- He sent an embassy of 72 merchants to China in 1077, the largest under Cholas.

- Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat, sent precious jewels to Kulottunga, who then donated them to the temple of Chidambaram in 1114 AD.

- He was an ardent Shaivite and persecuted Vaishnavite. The Vaishnavite bhakti saint Ramanujacharya left Srirangam and settled in Karnataka during his reign.

- He abolished many tolls and taxes, so he was given the title of Sungam tavirtta (abolisher of taxes).

The later Cholas kept the empire integrated till the mid-12^th century, after which the Pandyas occupied their territories.

2. Rajendra III (1246-1279AD)

Rajendra III was the last king of the Chola dynasty. However, his reign saw the ultimate decline of the Cholas. The Pandya and Hoysala kingdom captured the areas under the Chola Empire.

The Chola Administration

Central Chola Administration

In Chola Administration, King was the most important person, and there was a Council of a minister called Udankottam to advise him.

Ranks of Officials in Chola Administration –

- Nyayattar (judges) were of both categories, Perundanam and Sirudanam.

- Senapatis (commander of troops) had the middle position referred to as Sirudanattup Perundaram.

- Higher officers were known by the title of Adigarigal.

- Karumigal and Panimpkkal meant officers and servants, respectively.

Provincial and Local government

- Nadu, or the district, was the basic unit of administration initially. Then, however, under Rajaraja, Velanadu became important.

Administrative unit	Head of the unit
Valanadu	Periyanattar
Nadu	Nattar
Nagaram	Nagarattar

Features of aNadu

- It was similar to a district.

- Rich peasants of the Vellala caste controlled it.

- Some peasants served three kings and were called Muvendavelan; others were called Araiyar (chief).

- Kings gave both these titles as a mark of respect.

- The village’s local self-government system was a unique feature of the Chola Empire. Village enjoyed complete autonomy. It consisted of two types of assemblies –

Assembly	Features
‘Ur’	● It consisted of the tax-paying residents of ordinary villages. ● It had an executive body called the Alunganam.
‘Sabha’	● It was restricted to the Brahmadeya villages, i.e. tax-free villages granted to the Brahmans. ● Most of the Land under this was tax-free. ● Sabha had different committees (Variyams) for various works such as irrigation, gardens, temples etc. Kudavoai System selected the members of Variyams.

Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, provide details of how the Sabha was organised.

Chola Kudavolai System according to Uttaramerur Inscription:

- It was a system adopted to select the members of the Variams(village-level committees for governance).

- Each member had to possess certain qualities to be eligible for selection.
  - - Owner of Land and a home in the same area.
  - - Not elected in past-3 years.
  - - Must be 35-70 years of age.
  - - Must know Vedas.
  - - Must have experience in administration.
  - - Must be honest, and his and his family’s accounts were submitted.

- Lottery system for selection: The names of eligible candidates were written on small tickets with palm leaves. These tickets were put into an earthenware pot, from which a young boy was asked to take out the tickets, one by one, for each committee.

Revenue administration of Chola Dynasty

Taxes on imports and exports were known as Sungam.

The Land Revenue system of Chola Dynasty:

- The Cholas had a well-organised department of land revenue called the Puravuvaritinaik Kalam.

- Varippottagam’s department maintained the records of land rights and taxes.

- Land revenue was levied in cash and kind both.

- The land tenure system was based on a feudal class structure of warriors, farmers, artisans and merchants where the distinctions between the caste status of the constituent classes were strictly enforced.

- Chola inscriptions mention several categories of Land:

Type of Land	Land-use classification
Vellanvagai	Land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors
Brahmadeya	Land gifted to Brahmanas
Shalabhoga	Land for the maintenance of a school
Devadana, Tirunamattukkani	Land gifted to temples
Pallichchhandam	Land donated to Jaina institutions

Military of Chola Empire

The Cholas maintained a regular standing army. It consisted of elephants, cavalry, infantry, and navy.

- The royal infantry was called Kaikkolaperumpadai.

- Cavalry forces were supplied to the Imperial forces by the local chieftains in times of war.

The Chola Navy:

- Rajendra Chola had established the first Indian merchant naval fleet.

- It could undertake any of the combat and non-combat missions.

- The Non-combat missions included the peacetime patrol and interdiction of piracy, escort trade conveys, and escort-friendly vessels.

- The Combat missions included establishing a beachhead and reinforcing the army in times of need, naval battles at the high seas, denial of passage for allies of the state’s enemies, and sabotaging enemy vessels.

- The attack on Srivijaya’s empire in Indonesia in 1025 is a prime example of how efficient the Chola Navy was in conducting combat missions.

Reasons for Wars under Cholas:

- Expansion of territories: wars with the Pandyas and Chalukyas brought new territories under the direct control of the Cholas.

- Wars were an effective means to secure trade routes, as seen in an attack on the Srivijaya empire.

- Raid and plunder were legitimate means to acquire wealth in medieval times. For example, cholas brought idols and riches from temples from the neighbouring territories.

Chola Economy

1. Agriculture and Irrigation

The village economy was self-efficient, preventing the feudatory chiefs from interfering in the village economy and land system.

The overflowing of the Kaveri River brought fertile soil to their banks. In addition, water from the channels irrigated the fields, particularly for rice cultivation. Cholas had put a great emphasis on irrigation.

- In some areas, wells were dug.

- In many places, huge tanks were constructed to collect rainwater. We find a chain of Chola tanks as far as modern-day Telangana.

- In many areas, two crops were grown in a year.

2. Industries and Crafts

- Utensils were made in gold, silver, bronze, copper, brass etc.

- The art of jewellery was famous. Gold and pearl were used in making jewels and ornaments.

- Kanchipuram was an important centre of the textile industry.

3. International Trade

- The Cholas made a remarkable amount of trade with the Arabs, Southeast Asia and China. For example, horses were imported from Arabia.

The crown backed its traders:

- The Cholas sent several trade missions to China under The Chung Dynasty, who called the Chola Chulien. Large missions were sent in 1016, 1033 and 72 merchants were sent in 1077.

- Rajendra Chola fought with the Sri Vijaya Empire of Sumatra Island to ensure its trade interests.

- Important ports for trade were – Mahabalipuram, Kavirippumpattinam, and Korkai.

The exported items included Merchant Guilds under Cholas

- Technicians of a particular trade joined together and formed Associations called Guilds. These guilds had existed for centuries before the Cholas and had become extremely powerful.

- They were involved in the expansion of internal and external trade.

- - - Tamil merchant guilds such as the Ayyavole-500, Nanadesi, Anjumanam and Manigramam followed the conquering Chola Navy into Southeast Asia and China for trading. Some guilds like Anjumanam even had Jewish, Christian and Muslim traders.

Chola Society

- Sati, Devadasi and Caste system was widely prevalent.

- Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges.

- There were two major divisions among castes –

Caste	Occupation
Valangai (right-handed faction)	Castes with agricultural basis.
Idangai (left-handed faction)	Castes involved in manufacturing, such as metal workers and weavers.

- Pulaiyas (considered outcasts by Brahmanas and Vellala caste) lived on the outskirts of the village in a small hamlet. They were not allowed to participate in Village administrative activities.

- The Sanskritisation process (i.e. castes placed in lower hierarchy seeking ‘upward’ mobility by emulating the practices of the upper castes) was started in the Chola empire.

Chola Religion and Rituals

- In Chola Dynasty King was often compared with god:
  - - Worship of the dead king was practised.
  - - According to the traveller Marco polo, all the bodyguards of the king burn themselves in the funeral pyre of the dead king.
  - - Kings built temples in their names to gather fame. For example, the Rajarajeshwara Shiva temple was built by Rajaraja Chola.

- Chola were Shaivites.

- It seems that there was a conflict between Vaishnavites and Shaivites. It is noted by the Vaishnavites after the death of Ramanujacharya that the Chola king persecuted Vaishnavs, due to which Acharya Ramanuja had to migrate to the Hoysala kingdom.

- The philosophical system called Saiva Siddhanta was founded during this period.

Choal Art and Architecture

Stone and Bronze Sculptures:

- The Chola bronze images are famed across the world for their excellence. Bronze images were of deities and, at times, were made of devotees.

We find a large number of Shiva Sculptures. Shiva was represented in two forms – Lingodbhava form and Human form –

- Lingodhbhava Form represents Shiva emerging out of the Shiva Linga. Therefore, we generally find stone sculptures installed in Chola temples in Lingodbhava form.

Lingodbhava Form (Airavateshwara Chola Temple, 12Th Century)- Chola Art And Architecture

- Shiva can be depicted in human form as Nataraja (cosmic dancer form) or Ardhanariswara (half women form).

Human Forms Of Shiva- Chola Art And Architecture

Chola Architecture:

The Dravidian style of architecture reached its peak under the Cholas. Under this, many grand temples were built.

- In the 8th to 12th centuries, the role of the temple was not limited to religion alone. They were administrative centres, controlling vast areas of Land and the centre of urban activities.

Brihadeshwara Temple, Thanjavur- Chola Art And Architecture

Chola Literature

The Tamil literature reached its peak during the Chola period. Many classical works of this time are known to us today.

Books	Author
Thiruthakkadevar	Sivakasintamani
Kundalakesi	Nathakuthanaar
Ramayana	Kamban
Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam	Sekkilar
Kalingattupparani	Jayankondar
Moovarula	Ottakuthar
Nalavenba	Pugalendi
Kalladam	Kalladanar
Yapperungalam	Amirthasagarar
Nannul	Pavanandhi
Virasoliyam	Buddhamitra

FAQs Related to Chola Dynasty UPSC

Who was the founder of chola dynasty?

The Chola dynasty was founded by Vijayalaya Chola around 9th century CE. He established Chola rule in the region of modern-day Tamil Nadu, India, laying the foundation for one of South India’s Most long lasting dynasties. For all this he took control of the the Tanjore kingdom in the 8th century and defeated the Pallavas and made Tanjore the first capital of the Chola Empire.

Which empire ruled longest in India?

Chola dynasty (around 1300 to 1500 years) was the longest ruling dynasty in the world. They were righteous rulers and great devotees of Lord Shiva.

Who defeated Chola king?

Eventually, the Chola Dynasty was defeated by the neighboring Pandya Dynasty and the rule of the Cholas ended in 1279. The Chola rulers, like the other Tamil groups, were mostly practitioners of Hinduism. However, other religious groups such as Jainism, Islam, and Buddhism were also found in Tamil society.

Why Cholas are great?

The Cholas were an influential and powerful dynasty that ruled over parts of India from around the 10th century to the 13th century.

They were known for their patronage of art, architecture, and literature, as well as their political and military prowess. They were also remarkable administrators, and their system of government was renowned for its efficiency and justice.

The Cholas were also great patrons of the Hindu religion, and their temples are some of the most beautiful and intricate in India.

Who is powerful Raja Raja Cholan or Rajendra Chola?

Raja Raja Chola I was the greatest king of the Chola empire in southern India. The empire saw tremendous growth during his rule from 985 AD to 1014 AD.

He conquered the kingdoms of southern India, his empire expanding as far as Sri Lanka in the south and Kalinga (Orissa) in the northeast.

The End of Chola Empire

The Chola empire was vanquished with the defeat of Rajendra III (1070–1120AD) in the battle against Kulasekhara Pandiyan of the Pandya Dynasty. Pandya and Hoysala kingdoms captured the areas under the Chola Empire.

However, the political and cultural impact left by the Chola rule impacted all the empires of the Deccan for centuries to come.