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We have several sources that help us to reconstruct the Mauryan empire. These can be classified as either literary sources or Archaeological sources.
Table of Contents
Toggle- Literary Sources of Mauryan Empire
- Archaeological Sources of Mauryan Empire
- Ashoka Inscription /Ashokan Edicts
- Minor Rock Edicts of Ashoka
- Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka
- Minor Pillar edicts of Ashoka
- Major Pillar edicts of Ashoka
- Explore additional significant articles on Ancient Indian History listed in the table below:
Literary Sources of Mauryan Empire
These are the texts that describe the Mauryan Empire. These are either contemporary or non-contemporary.
Contemporary texts – These are books written during the time of the Mauryan Empire.
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- Sanskrit Texts: –
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- Arthashastra – is a compilation of 15 books, probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya, traditionally believed to be a minister of Chandragupta. It has a total of 180 chapters. Some books of the Arthashstra are –
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- Book 3 – Concerning laws on marriage, slave, robbery, defamation, recovery of debts etc.
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- Book 2 – talks about the duties of government officials.
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- Book 6 – Describes the Saptanga Theory.
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- Book 10 – relates to war, such as the arrangement of the army.
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- Book 12 – concerns the powerful enemy.
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- Arthashastra – is a compilation of 15 books, probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya, traditionally believed to be a minister of Chandragupta. It has a total of 180 chapters. Some books of the Arthashstra are –
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- Mrichhakatika(Meaning, ‘a clay cart’) – is a 2nd century BCE Sanskrit drama written by Shudraka. It is a story about a love of a wealthy merchant (Charudatta) with the daughter of a courtesan (Vasantasena).
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- Sanskrit Texts: –
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- Indica – written by Megasthenes, who was a Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta. His book survives in fragments.
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- It tells that the Mauryan ruler had a standing army of 6 lakh foot-soldiers, 30,000 cavalry and 9,000 elephants.
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- It mentions Pandyas of Madurai and Rani Mangamal.
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- Further, it contains some wrong information about the Mauryan society, such as the mention of 7 classes of society and the absence of any slaves.
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- Indica – written by Megasthenes, who was a Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta. His book survives in fragments.
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- Buddhist texts-
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- Deepvamsa and Mahavamsa are Sri Lankan chronicles written in the 4th and 5th century CE, respectively. They mention the expansion of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. They also mention Sanghmitra and Mahendra, King Ashoka’s daughter and son, and their mission in Lanka. They mention about their relation with South Indian kingdoms since 6th century BCE.
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- Asokavadana & Divyavadana contain a collection of legends built around Ashoka’s personality, his expedition to Taxila to suppress the rebellion and his conversion to Buddhism. These texts depict a cruel picture of Ashoka before his conversion to Buddhism.
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- Ashokavadan also tell us that some damange was done to the Sanchi stupa during the Pushyamitra’s time. Although his son, Agnimitra, rebuilt it.
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- Buddhist texts-
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- Jain literature-
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- Kalpasurtra – is a book written by Bhadrabahu, which mentions that Chandragupta deliberately starved to death by conducting Santhara/Sallekhana. Bhadrabahu was the spiritual guide to Chandragupta with whom he moved to Shravanabelagola after abdicating the throne.
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- Jain literature-
Non-Contemporary texts –
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- Parshvanatha, or Staviravali Charita – is a Sanskrit maha-kavya written by Hemchandra and focuses on the growth of the doms of Magadha.
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- Mudrarakshasa – Written by Vishakhadatta in the 4th century AD, is a Sanskrit drama which describes the overthrow of Nandas by Chandragupta with the help of Kautilya.
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- Puranas – Some puranic literature mentions Mauryan kings. For example, Matsya Purana mentions the name of Dasaratha and Samprati.
Archaeological Sources of Mauryan Empire
Numismatics – Study of coins –
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- Mauryans issued the largest number of punched marked coins. This demonstrates the significant growth in economic activities during the Mauryan times.
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- They used various types of metals to issue coins. Arthshastra names the multiple types of metal coins as follows:
Name | Metals used |
Rupyarupa/Karshapana/Pana | Silver coins |
Tamrarupa /Mashaka | Copper coins |
Suvarnarupa /Niskha | Gold coins |
Sisarupa | Lead coins |
Inscriptions – Indian inscriptions are engraved into stone or other durable materials, such as metals. Some examples are –
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- Sohgaura, a copper plate inscription found in Gorakhpur, UP, is written in the Prakrit language in Brahmi script. It tells about the warehouses prepared to store food. It was a measure by Chandragupta to prepare for facing a flood.
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- Mahasthan circular stone Inscription (c 3rd century BCE) in Bogra (Bangladesh) is the earliest epigraphic record in Bengal. It records an order issued by the King to the minister stationed at ‘Pudanagala’ to fill the storehouse or Kosthagara with requisite food as provisions against any emergency caused by flood, fire or damage to crops by parrots.
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- On rocks and pillars –Asoka was the first ruler in India who inscribed messages to his subjects and officials on stone surfaces, such as natural rocks and polished pillars.
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- Junagarh Rock inscription: The Girnar rock slab contains the Junagarh Rock Edict. It has Ashoka’s Major rock Edicts 1-14, as discussed later in this page. Further, it contains Saka king Rudradaman’s inscription(Sanskrit), which mentions the history of Sudarshana lake, apart from his own praise. According to the inscription, it was an artificial lake constructed by a Governor of Chandragupta Maurya named Vaishya Pushyagupta. Later, Ashoka and the Greek king Tusapha built the canals. Later, Skandagupta too engraved on this same rock wherein he called himself the “ruler of the earth”.
Scripts and language used in the inscription:
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- As with Ashokan Inscriptions, most inscriptions are written in the Prakrit language and Brahmi script. In Central and eastern India, the Magadhi Prakrit language is used by Ashoka.
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- Occasionally Kharoshti script was used for inscriptions in Greek and Aramaic languages. It was written right to left. For example, a bilingual Greek-Aramaic inscription was found at Shar-i-Kuna near Kandahar in southeast Afghanistan and Taxila.
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- James Prinsep, an officer in the East India Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi in 1837.
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- A few edicts such as on the Sanchi pillar use a presently undeciphered script. The scholars describe it as the ‘Shankhalipi’ or the “shell-script”.
Ashoka Inscription /Ashokan Edicts
Edicts are the official proclamation engraved on pillars, rocks and cave walls. Ashoka’s royal edicts are inscriptions written in Brahmi script and placed throughout modern-day India, Afghanistan, Nepal, and Pakistan. They are generally found engraved on natural rock surfaces.
Ashoka proposed Dhamma through his edicts. They were also referred to as the Dhammalipi, probably by people who followed Buddhism.
There are around 40 Ashoka inscriptions in total, falling under the following categories:
- Minor Rock edicts – are the earliest edicts inscribed in the 10th – 11th year onwards of the Ashokan rule.
- Major Rock edicts – were inscribed 12th year onwards of the Ashokan rule.
- Minor Pillar edicts – (Year 12 onwards) – Only in North India
- Major Pillar edicts – (Year 26-27 onwards) – Only in North India
Minor Rock Edicts of Ashoka
These were engraved early during the tenth and eleventh years of Ashoka’s reign, i.e. 2.5 years after Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, which was the direct and immediate effect of the Kalinga war. So these are the following three royal proclamations, found in 18 places across India.
Minor Edict 1: | Minor Edict 1 is the only edict that mentions the name the ‘Asoka’, with the salutation Devanamappiya (Beloved to the gods). In all other places, he is referred to by the name ‘Piyadain’ (pleasant to behold). It mentions that Asoka was on tour with the purpose of Dhammaghosa (to spread Dhamma) |
Minor Edict 2: | It mentions Dhamma’s instructions: “Obey mother, father, and the teachers; have mercy on living beings; speak the truth.”Rajuka (Officers) were asked to instruct the people about Dhamma in the countryside. |
Minor Edict 3: | Minor edict 3 is present only in the Bhabru inscription, Bairat.The ruler calls himself the King of Magadha, Piyadasin.He asks people to follow the Dhamma that is taught in Sangha. |
Locations of Minor Rocks edicts: Ashoka’s minor rock edicts are primarily concentrated in the south and central parts of the empire.
Minor Edict Type | Locations |
Places with only Minor Edict 1(North India) | 1. Bahapur (Near Kalkaji Mandir), Delhi 2. Gujarra (Jhansi), UP 3. Saru Maru/Panguraria, MP 4. Sasaram, Bihar 5. Rupnath, Jabalpur, MP (Kaimur Hills) 6. Ahraura, Mirzapur, UP 7. Ratampurva, Sasaram, Bihar 8. Bairat, Rajasthan |
Places with only Minor Edict 1(South India) | 1. Maski, Karnataka: In 1914, it was the 1st edict discovered with Ashoka’s name. 2. Palkigundu – Gavimath, Karnataka 3. Rajula – Mahendragiri, Andhra |
Places with Minor Edicts 1 and 2(None in North India) | 1. Udegolam, Karnataka 2. Nethur, Karnataka 3. Brahmagiri, Karnataka 4. Jatinga-Rameshwara, Karnataka 5. Yerragudi, Andhra 6. Siddapura, Karnataka |
The only place with 3rd Minor Edict | Bhabru, Rajasthan (Near Bairat temple, also called Calcutta-Bairat edict) |
Other Minor Inscriptions:
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- Apart from the above, four other edicts, namely, the bilingual Kandahar Edict, the Laghman Aramaic inscription, the Taxila Aramaic inscription and the Barabar caves inscriptions, are also included as minor rock edicts.
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- The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Edict(Chehel Zina Edict) is referred to as the 4th minor rock edict due to its recent discovery. However, it is now evident that it was the oldest edict inscribed by the Ashokan authorities, even before the 1st minor rock edict. It contains a general summary of the later inscriptions in Aramaic and Greek. It is the only such bilingual inscription.
Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka
After the 12th year of Ashoka’s reign, we find 14 major rock edicts of Ashoka in ten locations across India. These are generally placed along the borders of the empire. All Major Rock edicts mention Ashoka as Piyadasin and use the word Devanamapiya as the salutation.
[table id=7 /]
Location of 14 Ashoka’s Major Rock Edicts: The 14 major rock edicts are found in the following 10 locations in India. Here is 14 Ashoka edicts list:
Location | Features |
1. Kalsi, Uttarkhand | It is the first Major Rock Edict discovered by Alexander Cunningham in 1861. |
2. Supara, Maharashtra 3. Girnar, Gujarat 4. Yaragudi, Andhra 5. Sahbazgarhi Pesawar 6. Mansehra, Khyber |
● All major rock edicts are found on these sites. ● The Junagadh(Girnar) rock also contains inscriptions of Rudradaman I and Skandagupta. |
7. Dhauli, Bhuvaneshwar, Odisha 8. Jagoda, Ganjam, Odisha |
● Kalinga war is not mentioned, as the 11th, 12th and 13th Major Rock Edicts are omitted. ● Two separate Special Rock Edicts 1 and 2, are engraved here instead. They are different from the other minor or major rock edicts. |
9. Sannati Stone Slab – Karnataka | ● It bears four edicts, namely Major Rock edicts 12 and 14, and two separate Minor rock Edicts 1 and 2. Instead of having a natural rock surface, a block is prepared, and inscriptions are engraved on both sides. |
10. Kandahar, Afghanistan | ● Only the Greek translation of the 12th and initial 13th rock edict is engraved. |
Minor Pillar edicts of Ashoka
Minor Pillar Edicts are five separate Edicts of Ashoka inscribed on columns, the Pillars of Ashoka. The art of pillar construction first appeared in Persia in the Achaemenid empire, which were built block by block. However, Ashokan pillars were much more sophisticated and were constructed out of a single stone slab. All of them are found in North India.
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- Schism Minor Pillar Edicts – those upon which things unrelated to the Ashokan context are mentioned. This is sometimes because the rulers of other times have inscribed their own message over the original inscription.
[table id=18 /]
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- Commemorative Minor Pillar inscriptions – These are not pronouncements of Ashoka himself but rather commemorations of his visits to the area.
[table id=19 /]
Major Pillar edicts of Ashoka
Major Pillar Edicts of Ashoka are 7 in numbers, inscribed in monolithic pillars.
Edict | Ashoka Inscription Details |
Pillar Edict I | Ashoka’s principle of protecting his people. |
Pillar Edict II | Defines Dhamma as many virtues, compassion, liberty, truthfulness, purity, and minimum sins. |
Pillar Edict III | Avoiding behaviour of harshness, anger, cruelty, sin and pride among his subjects. |
Pillar Edict IV | Responsibilities of the Rajukas. |
Pillar Edict V | A list of birds and animals shouldn’t be slaughtered on specific days.Another list of animals that should never be butchered. Describes the release of 25 prisoners. |
Pillar Edict VI | Dhamma policy of the State (welfare of the people). |
Pillar Edict VII | It advises tolerance for all sects and tells about Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma, such as appointing Dhamma Mahamattas. |
Location of Pillars: These are located in important cities and along the road within the empire.
Location | Contains Edict | Capital |
1. Ram Purva, Bihar | Edicts 1 to 6 | Bull Capital |
2. Ram Purva, Bihar | Edicts 1 to 6 | Lion Capital |
3. Lauriya Araraj, Bihar(‘Laur’ means pillar) | Edicts 1 to 6 | Not present |
4. Lauria Navanagarh, Bihar | Edicts 1 to 6 | Lion Capital |
5. Allahabad Pillar, UP | Edict 1 to 6 and Queen’s schism edict | Lion Capital |
6. Delhi-Meerut (Bought from Meerut to Delhi) | Edicts 1 to 6 | Not present |
7. Delhi-Topra (Brought from Topra Kalan to Firoz Shah Kotla, Delhi) | Edicts 1 to 7 | Not present |
The Delhi-Meerut and Delhi Topra Pillars were moved by Firoz Shah Tughlaq to Delhi from Topra(Yamunanagar) and Meerut, respectively.
Apart from these, a Pillar without inscription has been found only in Vaishali, Bihar, with a Lion Capital.
Explore additional significant articles on Ancient Indian History listed in the table below:
Stone Age | Harappan Civilisation |
Vedic Period | The Mahajanapadas |
Age of Satvahanas | Understanding Mauryan Society |
Post Mauryan Age | Megalith and Sangam Age |
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